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ANNOUNCEMENT. 


TECHWOLOGICAL  HATiTDBOOKS. 

This  series  has  been  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  those 
who,  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  an  encyclopsedia,  are 
unwilling  to  purchase  when  they  wish  to  consult  but  a 
small  portion  of  it,  and  of  others  who  seek  for  fuller  infor- 
mation than  can  be  found  in  works  of  such  scope.  It  is 
hoped  that  these  Handbooks  will  be  of  use  both  to  the 
expert  and  the  beginner. 

Each  book  will  be  complete  in  itself,  embracing  informa- 
tion on  several  collateral  subjects,  illustrations  being  intro- 
duced whenever  they  will  be  found  of  advantage  in  explain- 
ing the  text.  They  will  be  issued  in  handy  form,  at  a  low 
lyvice. 

The  editing  has  been  undertaken  by  Mr.  John  Gardner, 
who  has  had  large  experience  in  work  of  this  kind,  having 
been  interested  in  the  preparation  of  recent  editions  of 
"  Cooley's  Cyclopsedia." 

The  first  volume  appeals  to  all  interested  in  the  Manu- 
facture and  Trade  of  Alcohol  Compounds.  The  second, 
now  offered  to  the  reader,  treats  of  Bleaching,  Dyeing, 
and  Calico-Printing. 

The  third  volume,  which  is  in  active  preparation,  will 
deal  with  Acetic  Acid  and  Vinegar,  Ammonia,  and  Alum. 


J.  ct  A.  CHUECHILL. 


BLEACHINd,  DYEING,  AND 

CALico-PEmTma. 


mi th  jFoxmul^. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 
P.    BLAKISTON,    SOiN    &  CO. 

1012,   WALNUT  STEEET. 
1884. 


EDTTOR^S  PREFACE. 


Although  the  present  volume  claims  to  be  little  more 
than  a  summary  of  the  arts  of  Bleaching,  Dyeing,  and 
Calico-printing,  the  Editor  hopes  it  may,  notAvithstand- 
ing^  be  found  a  ready  and  serviceable  manual  for 
practical  workers,  and  tliat  in  many  cases^  it  may  be 
instrumental  in  shortening  the  time  and  trouble,  that 
would  otherwise  be  expended  in  consulting  the  pages 
of  larger  and  more  elaborate  works. 

The  Editor  has  to  tender  his  grateful  acknowledgments 
to  his  friends,  Mr.  J.  F.  Hodges,  jun.,  of  Belfast,  and 
Mr.  James  Chad  wick,  of  Manchester ;  the  former  for 
his  valuable  assistance  in  the  compilation  of  the  chapter 
on  "Bleaching,'^  the  latter  for  his  no  less  valuable 
contributions  to  the  sections  on  "  Dyeing  and  Calico- 
printing."    To  Mr.  Chadwick  the  Editor  is  indebted 


vi  EDITORS  PREFACE. 

for  many  of  his  formnloe,  and  additionally  for  a  large 

amount  of  equally  useful  technical  information. 

Lastly,  the  Editor  has  to  aclvno\Yledge  his  indebted- 
ness to  Mr.  Ceookes'  "  Practical  Handbook  of  Dyeing 
and  Calico-printing  Uee's  "  Dictionary  of  Arts, 
Manufactures,  and  Mines ;"  Wagnek's  "  Chemical 
Technology/"  edited  by  W.  Ceookes,  F.E.S.  ;  Calveet's 
Dyeing  and  Calico-printing/''  edited  by  Stenhouse 
and  Geoves,  T.E.S.,  and  Spon^s  "  Encyclopaedia  of 
the  Industrial  Arts  all  of  which  works  have  been 
consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  little  volume. 

JoHX  Gaedxee,  E.I.C,  E.C.S. 

LoNDOi^,  December,  18S3. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I.  Bleaching   i 

II.  Dyeing   33 

III.   CALICO-PaiNTING   6t 

lY.  Dye  Stuffs   133 

Appendix   193 


BLEACHING,  DYEING, 


AND 

CALICO  PRINTING. 

CHAPTER  I. 

BLEACHING. 

Bleaching  is  the  process  by  which  the  colour  of  bodies^ 
natural  or  acquired,  is  removed,  and  by  which  they  are 
rendered  white  or  colourless.  It  is  more  particularly 
applied  to  the  decolorization  of  textile  filaments,  and  of 
cloths  made  of  them. 

Bleaching  is  a  very  ancient  art,  as  passages  referring  to  it 
in  the  earlier  sacred  and  other  writers  fully  testify.  It 
had  probably  reached  a  high  degree  of  excellence  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  first  Assyrian  empire,  and  was 
certainly  practised  in  Egypt  long  before  the  commencement 
of  written  history.  "We  may  fairly  assume  that  fine  white 
linen  formed  part  of  the  "  raiment,"  which,  together  with 
"  jewels  of  gold  and  jewels  of  silver  and  precious  things," 
Abraham  sent  as  presents  to  the  beautiful  Eebekah  and  her 
family,  fully  three  centuries  and  a  half  before  the  Exodus. 
Subsequently,  in  Scripture,  w^e  have  special  mention  of 
"fine  linen,  white  and  clean."  Herodotus,  the  earliest 
(ireek  historian,  tells  us  that  the  Babylonians  wore  "  white 
cloaks ;"  and  in  Athenceus  we  read  of  "  shining  fine  linen," 

B 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


as  opposed  to  that  which  was  "  raw"  or  unbleached.  At 
this  early  period,  and  for  many  centuries  afterwards,  the 
operations  of  washing,  fulling,  and  bleaching  were  not 
distinctly  separated.  The  common  system  of  washing, 
followed  by  drying  in  the  sun,  adopted  by  the  ancients,  is  a 
process  which  of  itself,  by  frequent  repetition,  decolorizes 
the  raw  materials  of  textile  fabrics,  and  thus  must  inevitably 
have  taught  them  the  art  of  "  natural  bleaching"  of  a 
character  similar  to  that  practised  in  Europe  up  to  a  com- 
paratively very  recent  period.  And  this  appears,  according 
to  the  authority  of  ancient  authors,  to  have  been  the  case. 
Washing  or  steeping  in  alkaline  and  ammoniacal  lyes,  or  in 
milk  of  lime,  followed  by  exposure  in  the  sun,  formed  the 
chief  basis  of  their  system ;  whilst  woollens,  then  as  now, 
were  treated  with  soap  and  fuller's  earth,  or  with  potter's 
clay,  marl,  limolian  earth,  or  other  like  minerals.  Urine 
was  highly  esteemed  among  them;  and  we  are  told  that,  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  and  undoubtedly  long 
before,  cloths  were  sulphured.  Indeed,  according  to  Pliny, 
sulphuring  was  often  had  recourse  to  in  ordinary  washing, 
as  well  as  in  the  bleaching  process.  Bleaching  continued  to 
be  practised  with  no  essential  change  of  its  principles  until 
the  discovery  of  chlorine,  to  which  we  shall  presently  refer. 

Though  the  art  of  bleaching  dates  from  the  remotest  ages, 
little  or  nothing  was  known  of  it  in  Great  Britain  as  an  art, 
until  within  a  century,  and  it  was  then  the  custom  to  send 
the  linen  manufactured  in  Great  Britian  over  to  Holland,  as 
the  inhabitants  of  that  country  were  at  this  period  considered 
the  most  superior  bleachers  in  Europe.  An  account  of  the 
method  which  the  Dutch  adopted  at  their  great  bleach  works 
near  Haarlem,  is  described  by  Mr.  F.  Hodges,  jun.,  in  his 
"  Chemistry  for  Bleachers."  It  consisted  in  steeping  the 
goods  in  a  lixivium  or  lye  made  from  the  lye-ashes  of 
Kussia,  and  in  wliich  otlier  cloth  had  been  steeped ;  after- 


BLEACHING. 


3 


wards  they  were  steeped  in  a  new  l3^e  of  lye-ashes  poured 
npon  them  boiling  hot.    In  this  solution  they  were  left  for 
some  days,  after  which  they  were  washed  and  pressed,  and 
then  steeped  in  a  sour  made  either  by  the  fermentation  of 
brail  and  water  or  buttermilk.    The  souring  usually  lasted 
from  six  to  seven  days ;  after  which  the  linen  was  washed, 
and  then  spread  upon  the  grass  to  bleach  by  exposure  to 
light,  air,  and  moisture.  The  bleaching  grounds  were  cut  with 
canals  in  different  places,  from  which  the  linen  was  watered 
with  long  narrow  shovels  made  in  the  shape  of  a  scythe ; 
the  water  of  these  canals  came  from  the  sand  downs,  and  to 
the  beneficial  efl'ects  derived  from  it  was  mainly  attributed 
the  superior  lustre  of  the  Dutch  cloth ;  indeed,  it  was  long 
a  prejudice  on  the  Continent  that  no  water  was  so  good  for 
bleaching  as  sea  watej;.    This  process  usually  required  from 
six  to  seven  months  for  its  completion,  and  the  goods 
bleached  by  it  were  sold  under  the  name  of  Dutch  cloth  or 
Hollands. 

Another  variety  of  linen  bleached  at  Haarlem,  which 
from  its  fineness  was  generally  spread  out  on  the  better 
grass  fields  or  lawns,  received  the  title  of  lawn.  Several 
authorities  relate  that  in  1749  an  Irishman  named  Dunlop, 
who  had  learned  something  of  the  nature  and  art  of 
bleaching,  settled  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  established 
works  for  the  purpose  of  bleaching  Scotch  goods;  and 
though  for  some  years  he  failed  to  bleach  the  goods  entrusted 
to  him  satisfactorily,  in  a  few  years  he  became  an  excellent 
practical  bleacher,  and  from  that  time  no  more  goods  were 
sent  to  Holland  for  the  purpose  of  being  bleached.  The  art, 
when  introduced  into  Great  Britain  by  this  enterprising- 
Irishman,  is  described  as  not  differing  in  the  smallest  degree 
from  the  method  employed  by  the  Dutch,  from  whom  it  was 
copied.  It  consisted  of  steepings  and  boilings  in  alkaline 
lyes,  called  bucking,  then  washing  and  exposing  on  grass, 

B  2 


4 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC, 


called  crofting;  these  operations  were  repeated  several 
times,  reducing  the  strength  of  the  lyes  every  time.  The 
linen  was  then  steeped  in  sour  milk  for  some  weeks,  after 
which  it  was  washed  clean  and  crofted.  This  process  was 
repeated  as  often  as  was  required  to  produce  a  pure  white. 
The  first  improvement  in  this  tedious  process  occurred  after 
the  introduction  of  a  new  method  for  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid  by  Dr.  Koebuck,  which  greatly  reduced  the 
price  of  that  acid.  The  improvement  consisted  in  the 
substitution  by  Dr.  Francis  Home,  of  Edinburgh,  of  water 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  as  a  sour  for  the  buttermilk 
hitherto  employed ;  this  reduced  the  time  required  for 
souring  from  weeks  to  days,  not  to  mention  the  absence 
of  the  risk  with  which  the  use  of  the  milk  was  accom- 
panied, as  sours  of  this  description  were  very  liable  to 
cori-uption.  Little  further  change  took  place  in  the  art 
of  bleaching  until  about  the  year  1787,  when  a  most 
important  improvement  was  effected  in  consequence  of 
the  discovery,  in  the  year  1774,  by  Scheele,  the 
celebrated  Swedish  chemist,  of  a  substance  which  he 
called  dephlogisticated  marine  air.  The  French  chemist, 
Berthollet,  in  1785,  repeated  the  experiments  of  Scheele 
on  this  new  substance,  and  showed  that  it  was  a  gas  soluble 
in  water,  to  which  it  gave  a  yellowish  green  colour, 
an  astringent  taste,  and  the  peculiar  smell  by  which  it  is 
distinguished.  Owing  to  Berthollet's  experiments,  this 
body  was  known  until  the  year  18 10  as  oxygenated 
muriatic  acid,  or  oxy-muriatic  acid,  into  which  it  was 
shortened ;  but  in  that  year  Sir  H.  Davy,  adopting  the 
idea  of  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard,  who  had  experimented 
with  it,  that  it  was  an  elementary  substance,  called  it 
chlorine,  owing  to  its  peculiar  colour,  by  which  name  it  is 
known  at  the  present  day.  Berthollet's  ideas,  and  the 
result  of  some  experiments  which  he  made  in  bleaching  linen 


BLEACHING. 


5 


with  the  gas,  were  mentioned  by  him  in  a  paper  which  he  read 
before  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  at  Paris,  in  April,  1795,  and 
pnbhshed  in  the  Journal  de  Physique  for  May  of  the  same 
year.  He  also  published  a  paper  in  the  number  for  August, 
1 786,  of  the  same  journal,  explaining  the  nature  of  the  action 
of  chlorine  on  vegetable  colours,  and  showing  how  it  could  best 
be  employed.  Paekes,  in  his  "  Chemical  Essays,"  relates  how 
a  Mr.  Copland,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  Aberdeen, 
while  on  a  visit  to  Geneva,  was  shown  by  Professor  de 
Saussure  of  that  town,  the  experiment  of  discharging 
vegetable  colours  by  chlorine  gas.  The  Aberdeen  Professor, 
having  been  impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  experi- 
ment, communicated  it  on  his  return  home  to  some  eminent 
manufacturers,  the  Messrs.  Milnes,  of  the  firm  of  Cordon, 
Barron  &  Co.,  of  Aberdeen,  who  immediately  entered  upon 
a  course  of  experiments  in  the  preparation  of  the  gas,  and 
the  best  manner  of  employing  it  in  bleaching,  and  obtained 
satisfactory  results.  Parkes  states  that  this  was  about  the 
end  of  July,  1787,  and  was,  he  believes,  the  first  actual 
application  of  the  then  so-called  oxy-muriatic  acid  in  Great 
Britain.  With  this  statement,  however,  other  authorities 
on  the  subject  do  not  agree,  and  it  seems  with  some  truth. 
Mr.  F.  Hodges,  jun.,  in  his  "  Chemistry  for  Bleachers," 
goes  fully  into  the  whole  subject,  and  the  w^eiglit  of  evidence 
which  he  brings  to  bear  from  numerous  quarters  goes  far  to 
prove  that  the  distinguished  engineer,  James  Watt,  if  not 
the  first,  at  least  is  entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  intro- 
duced it  at  as  early  a  date  as  Professor  Copland.  Watt 
learnt  the  process  of  manufacturing  and  using  chlorine  from 
Berthollet  in  1786,  and  shortly  afterwards  introduced  the 
process  on  a  large  scale  into  his  father-in-law's  (Mr.  Mac 
Gregor)  bleach  works  at  Glasgow.  Watt  laid  the  results  of 
the  employment  of  this  gas  in  bleaching  at  Glasgow,  before 
the  Manchester  manufacturers.    In  enforcing  the  importance 


6 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


of  the  new  substance  and  process  on  these  gentlemen,  he  was 
ably  followed  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Thomas  Henry,  F.K.S., 
of  Manchester,  and  it  is  related  how  this  gentleman  and 
Watt  unreservedly  described  to  each  other  the  result  of 
their  experiments.  To  Mr.  Henry  we  are  indebted  for  the 
introduction  of  the  new  art  into  Lancashire.  Watt  made 
several  improvements  in  the  art,  one  of  which  was  that  instead 
of  employing  muriatic  acid  and  manganese,  as  had  been  done 
by  ScHEELE  and  Berthollet  for  the  production  of  the  gas,  he 
used  a  mixture  of  common  salt,  black  oxide  of  manganese  and 
sulphuric  acid,  which  was  much  cheaper.  He  also  invented 
a  method  of  testing  the  strength  of  the  water  impregnated 
with  chlorine,  so  as  to  estimate  its  bleaching  power.  This 
he  did  by  taking  a  known  quantity  of  infusion  of  cochi- 
neal, and  ascertaining  how  much  of  the  bleaching  liquor  was 
necessary  to  destroy  the  colour — the  larger  the  quantity 
necessary,  the  weaker  obviously  was  the  bleaching  solution. 
Chlorine,  when  first  introduced,  was  used  in  the  state  of  gas, 
and  one  great  drawback  to  it  was  its  noxious  odour,  which 
is  not  only  very  disagreeable,  but  exceedingly  injurious  to 
health. 

To  Berthollet  we  owe  the  credit  of  being  the  first  to 
remedy  many  of  the  defects  of  bleaching  by  chlorine,  as? 
while  visiting  Javelle  for  the  purpose  of  showing  some 
bleachers  the  method  of  using  the  gas,  he  added  a  little 
potash  to  prevent  the  gas  from  impairing  the  goods. 
Not  long  after  this,  these  bleachers  announced  in  different 
journals  that  they  had  discovered  a  new  bleaching  liquor, 
which  they  called  the  "  Lye"  or  "  Eau  de  Javelle,"  and 
applied  to  the  British  Government  to  grant  them  the 
exclusive  right  to  supply  the  public  with  it,  but  in 
this  they  were  defeated,  as  it  was  shown  that  the  same 
article  had  been  in  common  use  in  Great  Britain  for  some 
time,  which  fact  prevented  them  from  obtaining  a  patent,  and 


BLEACHING, 


7 


consequently  the  liquor  of  Javelle,  which  thus  became  the 
property  of  the  public,  turned  out  to  be  nothing  but  a  solu- 
tion of  potash  in  water  impregnated  with  chlorine,  as  was 
proved  by  Berthollet  shortly  after  its  pretended  discovery- 
After  the  failure  of  the  foreigners  to  obtain  a  monopoly  of 
the  Lye  of  Javelle,  other  bleachers  learnt  to  make  it  for  them- 
selves, and  continued  to  use  it  for  some  time.  Though  this 
bleaching  liquor  had  some  advantages  over  the  solution  of 
the  gas  in  water,  they  were  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
the  disadvantages,  such  as  its  being  less  economical  than  the 
solution  of  chlorine  in  water,  and  its  not  keeping  any  length 
of  time  without  losing  its  bleaching  properties.  On  account 
pf  these  disadvantages,  its  use  was  not  long  continued. 

The  next  attempt  to  improve  on  this  bleaching  solution 
was  made  by  Mr.  Henry,  of  Manchester,  to  whom  we  have 
before  referred,  who  is  said  to  have  first  thought  of  the 
addition  of  lime,  but  owing  to  his  manner  of  employing  it, 
which  was  open  to  many  objections,  it  did  not  come  into 
use.  Other  attempts  were  made  by  different  persons  to 
improve  on  this  process,  but  none  succeeded  till  Mr.  Tennant, 
after  long  and  laborious  investigation,  hit  upon  a  method  of 
making  a  saturated  liquid,  composed  of  chlorine  and  lime, 
for  which  he  took  out  a  patent  in  the  year  1798.  This 
patent  was  pronounced  invalid,  and  unjustly  so,  as  many 
authorities  consider.  But  Mr.  Tennant  was  not  so  easily 
defeated,  for  in  the  following  year,  1799,  he  took  out 
another  patent,  which  may  be  considered  the  completion  of 
the  new  method.  This  patent  consisted  in  impregnating 
quicklime  in  a  dry  state  with  chlorine.  As  the  originality 
of  this  invention  was  not  disputed,  and  as  its  great  supe- 
riority over  all  methods  previously  introduced  was  obvious, 
the  demand  for  the  product  has  gone  on  increasing,  year 
by  year,  up  to  the  present  date.  The  "  new  or  continuous 
process"  of  bleaching,  as  it  is  called,  and  that  which  is  at 


8 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


present  in  general  use  in  all  the  chief  bleach  works  of 
Lancashire,  was  introduced  by  Mr.  David  Bentley,  of 
Pendleton,  and  patented  by  him  in  1828. 

Bleaching  is  commonly  said  to  be  natural  when  exposure  to 
light,  air,  and  moisture  forms  the  leading  part  of  the  pro- 
cess; and  to  be  chemical  when  chlorine,  or  any  of  the 
hypochlorites,  or  sulphurous  acid,  or  other  like  substances, 
are  employed.  In  some  cases,  as  with  linen,  the  two  pro- 
cesses are  combined. 

The  subject  will  be  noticed  under  separate  heads,  depend- 
ing on  the  material  operated  on. 

I.  Bleaching  of  Cotton. — Cotton  is  more  easily  bleached, 
and  appears  to  suffer  less  from  the  process,  than  most  other 
textile  substances.  On  the  old  plan  it  was  first  thoroughly 
washed  in  waim  water  to  remove  the  weaver's  paste  or 
dressing;  then  bucked  or  ''bowked"  (boiled)  in  a  weak 
alkaline  lye,  or  in  milk  of  lime,  to  remove  colouring,  fatty, 
and  resinous  matters  insoluble  in  simple  water ;  and  after 
being  again  well  washed,  was  spread  out  upon  the  grass,  or 
l^leaching  ground,  and  freely  exposed  to  the  joint  action  of 
light,  air,  and  moisture  (technically  called  "  crofting").  The 
operation  of  "  bucking"  in  an  alkaline  lye,  washing,  and 
exposure  was  repeated  as  often  as  necessary,  w^hen  the  goods 
were  "  soured"  or  immersed  in  water  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  after  which  they  received  a  final  thorough 
washing  in  clean  water,  and  were  dried,  finished,  and  folded 
for  the  market.  From  the  length  of  the  exposure  upon  the 
bleaching-ground,  this  method  is  apt  to  injure  the  texture  of 
the  cloth ;  and  from  the  number  of  operations  required  is 
necessarily  expensive  and  tedious.  It  is,  therefore,  now 
very  generally  superseded  by  the  system  of  chemical  bleach- 
ing, briefly  described  below.  In  the  chemical  system  of 
bleaching,  the  goods  are  washed  and  "  bucked"  as  on  the  old 
plan,  then  submitted  to  the  action  of  a  weak  solution  of 


BLEACHIKG. 


9 


<'liloride  of  lime,  and  afterwards  j^assed  through  water  soured 
with  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  again  thoroughly 
A\-aslied,  then  dried  and  finished.  The  aim  of  the  old  as 
well  as  the  new  process  is  to  remove  with  the  smallest 
amount  of  risk  to  the  goods  and  at  the  lowest  cost,  as  well 
as  in  the  shortest  time,  the  natural  as  well  as  the  acquired 
impurities  of  the  cotton.  The  nature  of  the  former,  which 
amount  to  only  about  i  per  cent.,  has  been  carefully  studied 
by  Dr.  Schunck,  and  they  have  been  found  by  him  to  consist 
of  fatty  and  waxy  matters,  brownish  colouring  substances, 
pectic  acid,  and  albuminous  matter.  The  acquired  impuri- 
ties consist  of  all  those  foreign  matters  obtained  either 
accidentally  or  intentionally  during  the  process  of  manu- 
facture. Their  amount  varies  enormously,  often  exceeding 
30  per  cent.  They  consist  of  the  various  matters, 
organic  and  inorganic,  introduced  during  the  sizing  of 
the  warps,  such  as  china  clay,  magnesium  chloride,  zinc 
chloride,  starch  or  flour,  grease  from  the  size,  the 
machinery,  and  the  hands  of  the  workmen,  and  dust  and 
dirt  of  all  kinds.  The  new  or  continuous  process,  before 
referred  to,  is  the  method  of  chemical  bleaching  at  present 
inmost  general  use;  and,  indeed,  it  has  nearly  superseded 
all  other  methods.  In  this  system,  the  pieces  previously 
tacked  together  endwise,  so  as  to  form  a  chain,  are  drawn 
by  the  motion  of  rollers  in  any  direction,  and  any  number 
of  times  through  every  solution  to  the  action  of  which  it  is 
desired  to  expose  them ;  being  at  the  same  time  entirely 
and  completely  under  the  control  of  the  operator.  Annexed 
is  an  outline  of  the  several  operations  in  the  improved 
form  of  the  continuous  process  as  practised  by  Messrs. 
McNaughton,  Barton  &  Thom,  at  Chorley,  and  in  most 
other  large  bleach-works. 

I.  Preliminary  Operations:  —  a.  The  "pieces"  are 
separately  stamped  to  enable  the  bleacher  to  distinguish 


lO 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


between  different  lots  of  cloth,  and  to  detect  faults.  The  goods 
in  the  grey  state  are  marked  by  any  colour  (usually  black), 
which  will  sufficiently  resist  the  bleaching  jjrocess.  Among 
the  marking  materials  which  are  commonly  employed,  are 
gas-tar,  pretty  thick,  alone  or  mixed  w^ith  lamp-black  ;  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  boiled  oils  coloured  with  red 
lead  or  lamp-black ;  and  aniline  black  ;  but  this  latter  has 
many  objections,  such  as  a  tendency  to  produce  holes.  In 
linen  bleaching,  each  piece  is  marked  w^ith  letters  made  by 
red  thread,  which  is  found  to  stand  the  bleach  better  than 
any  of  the  above  agents. 

h.  They  are  tacked  together  endwise,  either  by  hand  or  a 
machine,' so  as  to  form  one  continuous  piece  of  300  to  350 
yards  in  length,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  cloth. 

c.  The  next  operation  is  singeing,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
remove  all  the  fine  loose  down  from  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 
This  is  accomplished  either  by  passing  the  goods  rapidly 
over  revolving  hot  cylinders,  by  hot  plate,  by  coke  flame,  or 
by  gas  flame.  The  plan  most  generally  adopted  is  by  the 
gas  machine,  invented  by  Talpin,  and  improved  upon  by 
Messrs.  Mather  &  Platt. 

d.  I.  After  the  singeing,  the  goods  are  washed;  either 
before  or  after  washing,  they  are  crushed  into  a  rope-like 
form  by  drawing  them  through  a  smooth  aperture,  the 
surface  of  which  is  generally  of  glass  or  porcelain,  the  rope- 
form  being  given  them  to  enable  the  water  and  other  liquids 
to  penetrate  the  goods  more  easily,  and  to  allow  them  to 
be  laid  in  loose  coils  in  the  kiers. 

2.  The  following  process  requires  to  be  modified  slightly, 
if  a  market  bleach  or  madder-bleach  is  desired  ;  the  latter  is 
the  name  given  by  bleachers  when  the  goods  are  required 
as  white  as  possible,  the  former  if  the  goods  are  to  be  sold  in 
a  white  state,  and  not  printed  before  going  into  the  market. 
The  goods  are  run  through  milk  of  lime,  contained  in  the 


BLEACHING. 


II 


"limeing  macliiiie,"  direct  into  the  kier,  where  they  are 
bucked  or  boiled  under  pressure  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
hours,  followed  by  rinsing  or  cleansing  in  the  washing- 
machine. 

3.  They  are  soured  in  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid  ;  this  process  is  known  as  the  lime  sour"  or  "  grey 
sour,"  after  which  they  are  again  washed  by  the  washing- 
machines. 

4.  They  are  now  bucked  or  boiled  for  fifteen  or  sixteen 
hours  in  a  solution  of  resinate  of  soda,  and  then  washed  as 
before.  In  some  works  they  give  the  goods  a  light  boil  with 
soda  ash,  free  from  caustic,  after  the  resin  boil ;  this  is  to 
remove  any  risk  of  resin  remaining  in  the  cloth. 

5.  They  are  chemicked  by  being  laid  in  a  wooden,  stone, 
or  slate  cistern,  when  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  is  pumped 
over  them,  so  as  to  run  through  the  goods  into  a  vessel  below, 
from  which  it  is  returned  on  them  by  continued  pumping,  so 
that  the  cloth  lies  in  it  for  one  or  two  hours.  This  operation 
requires  great  care,  particularly  in  the  preparation  of  the 
chloride  of  lime  solution ;  as  Mr,  F.  Hodges,  jun.,  has  shown 
that  if  the  smallest  particle  of  undissolved  bleaching  powder 
is  allowed  to  come  into  contact  with  the  cloth  it  is  liable  to 
produce  holes.    The  goods  are  again  washed. 

6.  They  are  bucked  or  boiled  for  four  or  five  hours  in  a 
solution  of  I  lb.  of  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  dis- 
solved in  5  gallons  of  w?.ter,  to  every  35  lbs.  of  cloth,  and 
washed. 

7.  They  are  again  "  chemicked"  as  before,  and  washed. 

8.  They  are  soured  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
then  left  on  stillages  for  five  or  six  hours. 

9.  They  are  finally  thoroughly  washed,  well  squeezed 
between  rollers,  dried  over  steam  heated  tin  cylinders, 
starched  or  dressed,  and  finished.  This  is  the  usual  process 
for  good  calicoes.    Muslins,  and  other  light  goods,  are 


12 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


handled  rather  more  carefully ;  whilst  for  commoner  goods 
the  sixth  and  seventh  operations  are  generally  omitted. 
The  entire  process  usually  occupies  five  days  ;  but  by  using 
Mr.  Barlow's  high  pressure  steam-kiers  it  may  be  performed 
in  two.  Pendlebury's  kier,  which  is  not  unlike  Barlow's,  is 
generally  used  when  working  on  a  small  scale.  Yarns, 
as  they  contain  a  smaller  percentage  of  artificial  impurities 
than  cloth,  are  bleached  in  a  somewhat  different  manner. 
The  skeins  are  first  looped  together,  after  which  they  are 
boiled  in  open  kiers  in  soda  lye,  then  in  water,  washed, 
chemicked,  washed,  soured  and  washed. 

According  to  the  most  reliable  authorities,  the  strength 
of  cotton  fibre  is  not  imj^aired  by  its  being  boiled  for  two 
hours  in  milk  of  lime,  under  ordinary  pressure,  out  of  con- 
tact with  the  air ;  nor,  according  to  the  bleachers,  even  by 
sixteen  hours,  boihng  at  the  strength  of  40  lbs.  per  100 
gallons.  It  is  said  that  lime  is  less  injurious  than  soda. 
Solution  of  caustic  soda,  sp.  gr.  1*030,  does  not  injure  it, 
even  by  boiling  under  high  pressure  ;  but,  in  practice,  soda- 
ash,  or  carbonate  of  soda,  is  used,  and  this  is  only  in  the 
second  bucking,  and  in  the  third,  if  there  be  one.  The 
strength  now  never  exceeds  25  lbs.  of  the  crystals  to 
the  100  gallons,  and  is  usually  less.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  immersion  for  eight  hours  in  a  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime,*  containing  3  lbs.  to  the  100  gallons, 
followed  by  souring  in  sulphuric  acid  of  the  sp.  gr.  1*067, 


*  Since  the  introduction  of  bleaching  powder  many  chemicals  have 
been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  this  bleaching  agent,  but  up  to  the 
present  not  one  of  them  has  met  with  any  but  a  partial  success. 
Among  those  brought  before  the  public  may  be  mentioned  perman- 
ganate ;  chlorozone,  obtained  by  passing  a  mixed  current  of  hypo- 
chlorous  acid  and  air  through  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  this 
compoiuid  being  considered  by  some  to  bleach  better  than  the 
hypochlorites,  the  action  of  which  in  bleaching  it  resembles  ;  chloro- 
chromic  acid,  the  chlorates,  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  Perhaps  the 


BLEACHING. 


13 


or  for  eighteen  hours  in  acid  of  i'o35,  does  not  injure  it. 
By  the  improved  method  of  previously  treating  the  goods 
Avith  hme  or  alkahes,  httle  chloride  of  lime  is  required. 
Indeed,  it  is  said  that  where  300  lbs.  were  formerly  em- 
ployed, 30  to  40  lbs.  only  are  now  used.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  right  to  mention,  that  though  a  solution  at  ^° 
Twaddle  is  usually  regarded  as  the  best  and  safest  strength, 
yet  in  some  bleacli  works,  particularly  for  inferior  and  less 
tender  goods,  this  is  greatly  increased,  even  up  to  5°,  the 
period  of  immersion  being  proportionally  reduced,  as  it  is 
not  safe  to  expose  the  goods  long  to  the  action  of  such 
powerful  solutions.  With  the  higher  strengths  they  are 
passed  rapidly  through  the  liquid  with  the  callender, 
sufficient  time  only  being  allowed  to  soak  them  thoroughl}'-, 
then  immediately  through  the  acid  or  souring,  followed  by 
washing  as  before. 

2.  Bleaching  of  Linen. — Linen  may  be  bleached  in  a 
similar  way  to  "  cotton,"  but  the  process  is  much  more 
troublesome  and  tedious,  owing  to  its  greater  affinity  for  the 
colouring  matter  existing  in  it  in  the  raw  state.  Under  the 
old  system  several  alternate  buckings  with  pearlash  or  pot- 
ash and  lengthened  exposure  on  the  field,  with  one  or  two 
sourings,  and  a  final  scrubbing  with  a  strong  lather  of  soft 
soap,  constituted  the  chief  details  of  the  process.  In  this 
way  a  high  degree  of  whiteness,  though  not  an  absolutely 
pure  or  snow  white,  was  ultimately  produced.  Grass- 
bleaching  or  crofting  is  still  extensively  used  for  linen  ;  but 


most  novel  plan  pro])osed  as  a  substitute  for  tlie  cliemicking,  is 
that  invented  by  Engler,  who  bleaches  with  the  vapours  of 
chloroform,  generated  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  quickUme,  chloride 
of  Hme,  alcohol  or  acetic  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water.  In 
Scotland  and  Ireland  the  washing  is  generally  performed  by  wash- 
stocks,  whilst  in  Lancashire  dash-wheels  or  washing-machines  with 
squeezers  are  almost  always  used  for  the  purpose.  Cotton  loses 
about  I -20th  of  its  weigh  by  bleaching. 


14 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


it  is  more  generally  employed  only  for  a  limited  time,  and 
in  combination  with  a  modification  of  the  system  at  present 
almost  universally  adopted  for  cotton  goods ;  whilst  in  some 
cases  crofting  is  omitted  altogether,  and  the  bleaching  con- 
ducted wholly  by  the  latter  process.  Linen  goods  are 
bleached  either  in  the  form  of  yarn,  thread  or  cloth.  The 
following  Tables  exhibit  the  outlines  of  the  new  method  as 
at  present  practised  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  for  linen 
bleaching.  Table  No.  I.  is  that  which  is  given  as  suitable 
for  a  parcel  of  light  linens,  by  a  well-known  proprietor  of  an 
Irish  bleach  works,  at  a  time  when  the  now  but  little  used 
fermentation  process  was  in  favour,  l^o.  II.  is  the  outhnes 
of  the  new  system  at  present  practised  in  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land for  plain  sheetings. 

Table  No.  I. 

1.  Steep  for  24  hours,  wash  15  minutes;  time  2  days. 

2.  Boil  for   7  hours  in   lye   and  resin  2^°,  wash  15 

minutes ;  time  2  days. 

3.  Boil   for  9  hours  in   lye  2-|°,  v/ash  30  minutes ; 

time  I  day. 

4.  Grass  for  3  days  ;  time  3  days. 

5.  Boil  for    10  hours  in  lye    3°,  wash  30  minutes; 

time  I  day. 

6.  Grass  for  3  days ;  time  3  days. 

7.  Boil  for  8  hours  in  lye  3°,  Vvash  30  minutes ;  time 

I  day. 

8.  Grass  for  3  days;  time  3  days. 

9.  Kough  sour  for  10  hours  in  vitriol  2°,Vash  40  minutes ; 

time  I  day. 

10.  Scald  for  4  hours  in  weak  lye,  wash  30  minutes  ;  time 

I  day. 

1 1 .  Grass  for  2  days  ;  time  2  days. 


BLEACHING. 


15 


12.  Dip  for  10  hours  in  alkali  40  to  i  strength,  wash 

30  minutes;  time  i  clay. 

13.  Sour  for  12  hours  in  vitriol  wash  45  minutes; 

time  I  day. 

14.  Scald  for  4  hours  in  lye  and  soap,  wash  20  minutes  ; 

time  I  day. 

15.  Kub  witlibrovrn  soap,  wash  35  minutes;  time  i  day. 

16.  Grass  for  2  days;  time  2  days. 

17.  Dip  for  10  hours  in  alkali  30  to  i  strength,  wash  20 

minutes;  time  i  day. 

18.  Sour  for  12  hours  in  vitriol  1°,  wash  45  minutes; 

time  I  day. 

19.  Scald  for  3  hours  in  soap  and  lye,  wash  30  minutes; 

time  I  day. 

20.  Dip  for  10  hours  in  alkali  45  to  i  strength,  wash 

?  o  minutes ;  time  i  day. 

21.  Sour  for  12  hours  in  vitriol  1°,  wash  45  minutes; 

time  I  day. 

22.  Ivub  with  soap. 
Time  taken  31  days. 

The  goods  should  now  be  wliite  and  ready  for  finishing. 

Table  No.  II. 

a.  For  plain  sheetings  :  — 

1 .  They  are  bucked  for  12  or  1 5  hours  in  a  lye  made  with 

about  I  lb.  of  pearlash  (or  soda-ash)  to  every 
56  lbs.  of  cloth,  and  washed. 

2.  Crofted  for  about  2  days. 

3.  Bucked  in  milk  of  lime. 

4.  Turned,  and  the  bucking  continued,  some  fresh  lime 

and  water  being  added,  and  washed. 

5.  Soured  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  at  2°  Twaddle. 

6.  Bucked  with  soda-ash  for  about  lo  hours,  and  washed. 

7.  Crofted,  as  before. 


i6 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


8.  Bucked  again  witli  soda-ash,  as  before. 

9.  Crofted  for  about  3  days. 

10.  Examined,  the  white  ones  taken  out,  and  the  others 

again  bucked  and  crofted. 
Ti.  Scalded  or  simmered  in  a  lye  of  soda-ash  of  a])out  § 

only  2-3rds  the  former  strength,  and  washed, 
13.  Chemicked,  for  2  hours,  at  J°  Twaddle,  washed,  and 

scalded. 

13.  Again  chemicked,  as  before. 

14.  Soured  for  4    hours,  as  in  No.  5  ;  washed,  and 

finished. 

This  occupies  13  to  15  days,  according  to  the  weather. 
h.  For  shirtings,  &c. : — As  the  preceding,  but  with  some- 
what weaker  solutions, 
c.  For  goods  to  be  subsequently  printed  : — • 

1.  Bucked  in  milk  of  lime  for  10  or  12  hours. 

2.  Soured  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  of  2°  Twaddle, 

for  3  to  5  hours,  and  washed. 

3.  Bucked  with  resinate  of  soda  for  about  12  hours. 

4.  Goods  turned,  rebelled  as  before,  and  washed. 

5.  Chemicked  at  |°  Twaddle,  for  4  hours. 

6.  Soured  at  2°  Twaddle,  for  2  hours,  and  washed. 

7.  Bucked  with  soda-ash  for  about  10  hours,  and  washed. 

8.  Chemicked  as  in  No.  5. 

9.  Soured,  as  at  No.  6,  for  3  hours  ;  washed,  and  dried.* 
The  chief  difficulty  in  bleaching  linen  arises  from  the 

fact  that  it  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of  natural 
impurities  than  cotton.  To  thoroughly  understand  the 
nature  of  these  impurities  it  would  be  necessary  to  study 
the  various  processes  through  which  the  llax  plant  passes 
before  being  manufactured  into  hnen,  this  our  space  will 


*  The  strengths  of  the  solutions,  when  not  otherwise  stated,  are 
about  the  same  as  those  given  under  Cotton, 


BLEACHING. 


17 


not  permit ;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  that  after  the 
retting  process,  which  Professor  Hodges  has  shown  removes 
from  the  fibre  upwards  of  41-1  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogenized 
and  other  constituents  of  the  plant,  there  are  to  be  seen 
numerous  brilliant  scales  of  a  resinous  appearance  and  light 
amber  hue  which  are  deepened  in  colour  by  alkalies,  in 
which  also  they  can  be  entirely  dissolved.  The  nature  of 
these  scales  is  not  as  yet  clearly  understood.  The  consti- 
tuents of  dressed  and  undressed  flax  have  been  carefully 
studied  by  Hodges,  sen.,  and  Hodges,  jun. ;  to  the  investi- 
gations of  the  former  we  are  principally  indebted  for  infor- 
mation as  to  the  nature  of  these  bodies.  Hodges,  sen., 
upwards  of  thirty  years  ago,  gave  not  only  analyses  of  the 
gases  evolved  in  the  steeping  process,  but  investigated  the 
nature  of  the  constituents  of  dressed  flax,  showing  that  the 
latter  consisted  of  wax,volatile  oil  and  acid  resinous  matter, 
sugar  and  colouring  matters,  gum,  pectin,  nitrogenized 
compounds,  inorganic  matters  and  cellular  fibre.  Hodges, 
jun.,  has  lately  thoroughly  investigated  the  nature  and 
chemical  constitution  of  these  bodies,  and  finds  that  the 
wax  is  a  complex  body  closely  resembling  in  composition 
palmitic  ceryl  ether.  To  remove  these  impurities,  and  to 
produce  a  pure  white  cellulose,  is  the  object  of  all  the 
bleaching  processes  described ;  the  machinery  which  is  used 
to  accomplish  this  in  linen  bleaching  differs  greatly  from 
that  used  by  the  cotton  bleacher.  Space  will  not  permit  us 
to  enter  fully  into  a  description,  but  the  following  sketch 
may  be  serviceable  to  those  unacquainted  with  this  part  of 
the  subject. 

Wash  Mills. — These  machines  which  are  used  in  Ireland 
for  washing  linen  are  there  called  wash  mill  feet  or  stocks. 
They  are  made  by  suspending  from  a  strong  frame  two 
large  blocks  of  wood,  weighing  about  534  lbs.  each;  by 
means  of  the  water  supply,  these  blocks  are  made  to  rise 

c 


i8 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


and  fall  alternately,  in  this  way  tlie  goods  are  first  soaked 
with  water  and  then  squeezed  free  from  it.  Though  the 
appearance  of  these  machines  is  far  from  ornamental,  yet 
they  have  been  found  to  work  more  satisfactorily  than  any 
other  plan.  The  dash-wheel  is  a  cylindrical  box  revolving 
upon  its  axis,  and  divided  into  four  compartments,  these 
have  openings  into  which  two  or  more  pieces  are  introduced  ; 
water  is  admitted  through  the  hollow  axis  and  the  wheel  is 
set  in  motion,  causing  the  goods  to  pass  from  side  to  side. 
Many  other  washing  machines  have  been  proposed,  but  as 
yet  have  met  with  only  very  partial  success. 

Rubbing  Machine. — This  machine  is  a  special  feature  in 
linen  bleaching.  The  object  of  the  process  called  "  rubbing" 
is  to  give  the  goods  a  thorough  soaping,  to  neutralize  any  in- 
jurious acids  or  alkalies  they  may  contain,  and  to  remove 
the  yellowish  brown  specks  known  as  sprits.  At  the  foot 
of  this  machine  there  is  a  trough  containing  a  strong  solution 
of  soap  kept  constantly  boiling  by  steam,  the  goods  are  first 
passed  through  this  trough,  then  between  two  square  flat  pieces 
of  wood  or  marble,  toothed  transversely".  The  u^Dper  piece 
is  made  to  move  lengthwise  Over  the  goods,  which  are  pulled 
through  by  the  drawing  engine.  A  description  of  the  yarn 
and  linen  drying  and  finishing  machinery  would  be  alto- 
gether out  of  place  in  a  notice  such  as  this,  and  we  shall 
have  to  content  ourselves  with  a  short  account  of  the 
.several  chemical  processes  described,  such  as  the  Steep,  the 
Boil,  the  Sour,  the  Scald,  and  the  Dip.  Linen  goods  con- 
tain about  33  per  cent,  of  impurities,  consisting  of  those 
before  mentioned  ;  together  with  these  it  contains  a  dressing- 
employed  bythe  weaver,  this  dressing  is  used  to  make  the  linen 
smooth  and  cover  l^ad  work,  and  is  made  usually  from  flour 
in  the  form  of  paste  ;  but  just  as  the  cotton  bleacher  has  to 
contend  with  a  numerous  list  of  articles  used  as  a  size  or  as 
dressing,  so  has  the  linen  bleacher  ;  among  those  used  bythe 


BLEACHING. 


19 


linen  weaver  may  be  mentioned  mashed  potatoes  allowed  to 
sour,  a  mixture  of  glue,  sago,  and  tallow  boiled  together,  Irish 
moss,  and  soap.  These  are  either  used  alone  or  mixed  with 
numerous  substances,  such  as  chloride  of  calcium  or  mag- 
nesium, gum,  glycerine,  wax,  &c.  The  object  of  the  steep 
or  boil  is  to  remove  all  these  matters,  and  the  success  of  the 
bleach  in  great  part  depends  upon  wdiether  this  has  been 
successfully  accomplished. 

The  now  little  used  steeping  process  was  carried  out  in  a 
]i:ieve  or  box  made  of  wood,  stone,  or  cement,  containing  water 
at  a  tempera,ture  of  120°  to  150°  Fahr.  (49°  to  65*5°  C),  in 
which  the  goods  w^ere  immersed  from  one  to  two  days,  and 
fermentation  was  promoted  either  by  pijDe  clay,  resin,  liran,  in- 
fusion of  malt,  or  yeast.  When  the  goods  had  been  sufficiently 
long  in  the  steep  they  were  washed,  and  then  boiled  under 
pressure,  first  in  old  soda  lye,  then  again  washed  and  again 
iDoiled  in  lye  cleaner  than  that  at  first  used,  yet  not  quite  pure. 
The  number  of  boils  and  their  length  depended  not  only  on 
the  class  of  goods  to  be  bleached,  but  upon  the  ideas  of  the 
bleacher.  Lime  is  now  used  in  most  of  the  Irish  bleach- 
greens  for  boiling,  and  though  some  of  the  older  bleachers 
do  not  care  for  it,  j^et  for  many  classes  of  goods  it  has  been 
found  to  produce  a  better  result  than  soda  lye  for  the  first 
boils.  It  is  most  important  that  the  goods  after  boiling  in 
soda  lye  be  not  allowed  to  lie  exposed  to  the  air  too  long- 
without  being  washed,  as  the  carbonate  of  soda  is  apt  to 
crystallize  within  the  fibres,  which  are  burst  during  the 
formation  of  the  crystals.  The  loss  of  weight  by  the  boiling 
in  lime  and  caustic  or  carbonated  alkalies,  varies  according 
to  the  class  of  yarn  and  its  former  treatment,  from  14  to 
37  per  cent.  The  larger  the  number  of  boils  the  greater  will 
be  the  quantity  of  the  brownish  colouring  matter  of  the  fibre 
which  wdll  be  removed,  and  after  a  time  the  goods  will  only 
retain  a  light  grey  shade  which  is  without  difiiculty  removed 

c  2 


20 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


by  steeping  in  a  weak  solution  of  a  hypochlorite ;  care  must, 
however,  be  taken  that  the  hypochlorite  be  not  used  until 
the  brownish  colour  has  been  removed,  as  it  will  be  "  set" 
or  fastened  by  the  hypochlorite.  Steeping  in  a  solution  of  a 
hypochlorite  is  technically  called  the  Dip.  The  hypochlorite 
principally  used  in  Ireland  for  the  dip,  is  for  linen,  hypo- 
chlorite of  soda,  commonly  called  chloride  of  soda ;  this  the 
bleacher  usually  makes  for  himself  by  adding  to  a  clear 
solution  of  bleaching  powder  or  hypochlorite  of  lime,  a 
solution  of  soda  ash  or  carbonate  of  soda,  allowing  the  mix- 
ture to  settle  and  drawing  off  the  clear  solution,  which  is  the 
chloride  of  soda.  For  yarns  and  threads  the  bleaching 
agents  used  are  hypochlorites  of  lime  or  magnesia. 

The  Sour. — Souring  consists  in  immersing  the  goods  from 
four  to  eight  hours  in  a  bath  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and 
then  washing.  It  is  called  a  rough  sour  if  the  goods  are 
soured  after  coming  from  the  grass  and  before  they  have  had 
a  dip. 

The  Scald. —  Scalding  is  a  light  boil  of  from  two  to  three 
hours  in  a  clean  and  weak  lye  containing  some  soap,  together 
with  the  soap  left  in  the  goods  after  the  rubbing  process.  The 
above  is  an  outline  of  the  process  and  machinery  at  present 
employed  in  Ireland  for  linen  bleaching,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  machinery,  which  has  been  greatly  improved, 
little  or  no  change  has  taken  place  in  the  method  since  the 
introduction  of  chlorine.  Though  many  plans  have  been 
proposed  to  shorten  the  process  by  doing  away  with  the 
grassing,  none  so  far  as  linen  is  concerned  have  succeeded  ; 
the  latest  and  perhaps  the  most  novel  plan  suggested  is  that 
lately  patented  by  Messrs.  J.  J.  Dobbie  &  J.  Hutcheson, 
who  generate  chlorine  by  the  electrolysis  of  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Their  process  consists  in  steeping  the  cloth  to 
be  bleached  in  sea-water,  and  passing  the  fabric  between  a 
series  of  carbon  rollei'S,  the  upper  row  of  which  is  connected 


BLEACHING. 


21 


with  one  pole,  the  lower  row  with  the  other  pole  of  a 
battery.  The  rollers  are  caused  to  rotate  slowly,  and  thus 
pass  the  fabric  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Hypochlorite  is 
formed,  and  on  subsequent  immersion  in  acid  the  fabric  is 
effectually  bleached. 

For  yarn  and  thread  bleaching  the  process  which  has  been 
found  most  successful  is  that  of  Hodges,  jun.,  which  is  known 
in  Ireland  as  the  Chemico-Mechanical  Process,"  so  called 
from  the  patentee  turning  to  account  the  advantages  derivable 
from  the  employment  of  mechanical  contrivances  driven  by 
steam,  combined  with  the  introduction  of  a  new  method  of 
obtaining  the  hitherto  little  used  hypochlorite  of  magnesia. 
This  process  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  discovery  of  the 
substance  known  as  Kieserite  (native  sulphate  of  magnesia), 
which  occurs  as  an  essential  constituent  of  the  Abraum  salts 
of  Stassfurt.  For  some  time  after  the  introduction  of 
this  substance  into  the  market,  it  was  considered  of  little 
value  except  for  the  production  of  Epsom  salts  ;  but  Mr. 
Hodges,  in  the  course  of  some  investigations  in  bleaching 
jute,  having  had  occasion  to  emj^loy  large  quantities  of  hypo- 
chlorite of  magnesia,  it  occurred  to  him  that  kieserite  might 
be  substituted  for  the  more  expensive  crude  sulphate  of 
magnesia ;  and  the  importation  into  Ireland  of  the  sample 
for  this  purpose,  was  the  first  that  was  ever  sent  into  that 
country  for  the  manufacture  of  a  bleaching  liquor,  or,  in- 
deed, for  any  other  use.  Mr.  Hodges,  on  experimenting 
with  the  kieserite,  found  that  it  not  only  supplied  the  place 
of  the  crude  sulphate,  but  acted  as  a  better  precipitant  for 
the  lime  of  the  bleaching  powder,  which  is  em^iloyed  in  the 
j)roduction  of  the  hypochlorite  of  magnesia ;  and  that  it 
also  produced  a  stronger  and  clearer  solution.  Without 
entering  into  a  minute  description  of  the  process,  the  fol- 
lowing outline  will  be  sufficient  to  show  the  nature  of  the 
methods  adopted.    The  kieserite,  which  is  imported  from 


22 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Gei-many  in  square  blocks,  on  arriving  at  the  works,  is 
conveyed  to  a  house,  on  the  grouncl-Hoor  of  which  it  is 
stacked  until  required,  when  it  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder, 
placed  in  barrels,  and  drawn  up  by  means  of  a  crane  to  a 
room  at  the  top  of  the  building,  at  one  end  of  which  is  a 
row  of  three  tanks  furnished  with  water  taps,  agitators, 
and  false  bottoms.  In  one  of  the  end  tanks  a  definite 
quantity  of  the  kieserite  powder  (varying  according  to  its 
strength,  ascertained  by  analysis)  is  placed  and  dissolved 
in  a  given  quantity  of  water,  the  solution  being  assisted  by 
agitators,  and  on  settling,  the  clear  liquor  is  siphoned  over 
into  the  middle  tank.  In  the  third  tank,  bleaching  powder 
(hypochlorite  of  lime),  varying  in  quantity  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  kieserite  solution,  is  placed.  The  bleaching 
powder  after  being  agitated  with  water  is  allowed  to  settle, 
and  the  clear  solution  is  siphoned  over  into  the  middle  tank 
containing  the  clear  kieserite  solution,  the  agitator  being- 
kept  in  motion,  not  only  during  the  mixing  of  the  liquids, 
but  for  some  time  aftei-.  The  mixed  liquids  are  then  allowed 
to  remain  undisturbed  all  nighty  after  which  the  clear  hypo- 
chlorite of  magnesia  solution  is  siphoned  into  a  large 
settling  tank,  which  is  situated  in  the  room  below.  From 
this  vessel  it  is  conducted  thi'ough  wooden  jDipes  (which  are 
so  contrived  that  they  can  be  opened  and  cleansed  at  will), 
into  a  large  cistern  standing  in  the  bleaching-house.  This 
cistern  is  fitted  with  a  ball-cock,  by  which  arrangement  the 
liquid  can  be  drawn  off  by  a  system  of  wooden  pipes  as  re- 
quired. The  bleaching-house  in  which  the  cistern  is  situa- 
ted is  fitted  up  in  an  original  manner,  and  covers  something- 
more  than  an  acre  of  ground ;  whilst  the  reeling-shed, 
which  is  the  only  part  of  the  works  our  limits  will  permit 
us  to  describe,  is  240  feet  long  by  24  feet  broad,  and  con- 
tains ten  steeps  and  twelve  reel  boxes.  Each  box  is  pro- 
vided with  watei',  a  solution  of  the  bleaching  agent,  and 


BLEACHING. 


23 


steam  pipes,  and  is  capable  of  reeling  at  a  time  about  500  lbs. 
of  yai-n.  Above  the  box  is  a  line  of  rails  on  pillars.  A 
travelling  crane  runs  along  the  rails,  and  carries  the  reels 
from  one  box  to  another.  Attached  to  this  crane  is  a  newly 
invented  hydraulic  pump,  by  means  of  which  the  reels  with 
the  yarn  on  them  can  be  lifted  in  a  few  seconds  from  one 
box  to  another. 

After  the  yarn  has  been  boiled,washed,  and  passed  through 
the  squeezers  in  the  usual  manner,  it  is  put  on  a  waggon, 
in  which  it  is  carried,  by  means  of  a  line  of  rails,  down  to 
the  first  reel  box.  Here  it  is  placed  on  the  reels,  which 
are  made  to  revolve  by  means  of  steam  first  in  one  direc- 
tion and  then  in  another,  through  a  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  previously  heated  by  means  of  the  steam-pipes  before 
mentioned.  The  yarn  having  been  sufficiently  scalded  and 
so  saturated  with  soda,  the  reels  to  which  it  is  attached  are 
raised  by  the  hydraulic  pumjp  out  of  the  box,  and  the  yarn 
allowed  to  drain  for  a  few  minutes,  after  which  the  travel- 
ling crane  carries  it  on  to  the  next  box.  Into  this  box  the 
yarn  is  again  lowered  by  the  pump  and  made  to  revolve  as 
before,  but  this  time  through  a  solution  of  the  bleaching 
agent,  which  immediately  re-acting  on  the  carbonate  of  soda 
with  which  the  yarn  is  charged,  renders  this  bleaching 
agent  free  from  the  danger  which  attends  the  employment 
of  chlorine,  or  the  ordinary  bleaching  powder  used  in  the 
older  methods  of  l^leaching.  After  the  yarns  have  been 
brought  to  the  desired  shade  in  the  solution  of  Hodges' 
bleaching  agent,  they  are  either  removed  as  before  to  a 
new  box,  and  there  washed  before  being  soured,  or  they 
are  thrown  into  one  of  the  steeps  filled  with  water  for 
the  night.  These  operations  are  repeated  with  weaker 
solutions  in  the  remaining  reel  boxes,  either  once  or 
twice  according  to  the  shade  required. 

Mr.  Hodges  claims  as  the  chief  features  of  his  invention, 


24 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


that  it  consists,  first,  in  the  employment  of  a  bleaching 
agent  which  has  not  hitherto  been  practically  employed, 
and  a  cheap  method  for  its  production  ;  second,  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  yarn  prior  to  its  being  submitted  to  the  action 
of  the  bleaching  agent,  this  preparation  setting  free  not 
only  the  imprisoned  chlorine  of  the  hypochlorite,  but  also 
another  powerful  bleaching  agent,  oxygen;  third,  in  new 
and  improved  machinery,  by  which  the  work  of  bleaching 
the  yarn  is  greatly  shortened ;  fourth,  in  doing  away  with 
the  tedious  and  expensive  operation  of  exposing  the  yarn 
on  the  grass.  If  this  last  were  the  only  feature  in  Mr. 
Hodges'  invention,  the  patentee  would  have  greatly  im- 
proved the  process  of  bleaching  ;  not  only,  however,  does  the 
new  process  supplant  the  old  long  and  tedious  one,  but  a 
great  economy  of  time  is  additionally  gained  in  other  parts 
of  the  process  ;  added  to  these  advantages  it  is  stated  that  a 
superior  finish  is  given  to  the  yarns,  and  that  in  conse- 
quence a  much  greater  demand  for  them  has  arisen. 

Mr.  Hodges  contends  that  the  absence  of  caustic  lime 
from  his  new  bleaching  compound  gives  it  great  advan- 
tages over  the  old  bleaching  powder,  particularly  in  its 
application  to  finely  woven  fabrics,  such  as  muslins,  etc. 
He  also  says  that  fabrics  bleached  by  it  receive  an  in- 
creased capacity  for  imbibing  and  retaining  colouring  matter, 
a  fact  of  considerable  importance  to  the  dyer  and  calico- 
printer,  as  they  are  thus  enabled  to  communicate  to  the 
fabrics  tints  which  have  heretofore  been  considered  im- 
possible. 

The  following  is  the  Irish  plan  of  bleaching  yarns  : — 

To  Bleach  1,200  lbs.  Weight  of  Yarn. 
Boil  3  hours  in  soda-lye. 

Keel  in  solution  of  hypochlorite  of  lime,  i  \  hovirs. 

Wash  for  25  minutes. 

Sour  in  sulphuric  acid,  ^  hour. 


BLEACHING. 


25 


Wash  for  25  minutes. 
Scald  I  hour. 

Reel  in  solution  of  hypochlorite  of  lime. 
Squeeze  \  hour. 
Sour  I  hour. 
"Wash  25  minutes. 
Soap  I  hour. 

This  should  make  the  yarns  \  white. 

To  Bleach  1,200  lbs.  Weight  of  Yarn. 
Boil  3  hours  in  soda-ash  of  10  per  cent,  strength. 
Keel  i\  hours  in  solution  of  bleaching  powder  of  150  per 

cent,  strength. 
Wash  25  minutes. 

Sour  I  hour  in  sulphuric  acid  of  3  per  cent,  strength. 
Wash  25  minutes. 

Scald  j  hour  in  soda-ash  of  3  per  cent,  strength. 

Reel  in  solution  of  bleaching  powder  |  hour  of  40  per 

cent,  strength. 
Squeeze  \  hour. 

Sour  in  sulphuric  acid  for  |  hour  of  i|  per  cent,  strength. 

Wash  25  minutes. 

Soap  I  hour,  J  per  cent,  strength. 

The  yarn  should  now  be  ^  white. 
Scald  I  hour  in  soda-ash  of  ij  per  cent,  strength. 
Spread  it  on  the  grass  for  24  hours. 

Steep  in  bleaching  powder  solution  12  hours  of  20  per 

cent,  strength. 
Wash  30  minutes. 

Sour  in  sulphuric  acid  ^  hour  of  i|  per  cent,  strength. 

Wash  25  minutes. 

Soap  I  hour  of    per  cent,  strength. 

The  yarns  should  now  be  |  white. 
S(;ald  ^  hour  in  soda-ash  of  i|  per  cent,  strength. 


26 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Spread  on  grass  lo  days. 

Scald  \  hour  in  soda-ash  of  \  per  cent,  strength. 

Steep  12  hours  in  bleaching  powder  solution  of  20  per 

cent,  strength. 
Wash  30  minutes. 

Sour  in  sulphuric  acid  |-  hour,  of      percent,  strength. 

If  the  yarns  are  not  now  full  white, 
Scald  I  hour  in  soda-ash  of       percent,  strength. 
Steep  12    hours  in  bleaching    powder   solution  of  10 

per  cent,  strength. 
Squeeze  \  hour. 

Sour  J  hour  in  sulphuric  acid  of  i|  per  cent,  strength. 

Soap  I  hour,  of  J  per  cent,  strength. 
The  yarns  should  now  be  full  wdiite. 

Bleaching  "Woollen  Goods. — In  the  case  of  woollen 
fabrics,  the  operations  of  purifying  or  whitening  the  wool, 
beyond  the  removal  of  the  yolk,  are,  for  the  most  pai-t, 
mixed  up  with  the  weaving  and  working  of  it.  The  pieces 
leave  the  hands  of  the  weaver  of  a  dingy  grey  colour,  loaded 
with  oil,  dirt,  and  dressing.  They  then  pass  to  the  fulhng- 
mill,  where  they  are  treated  with  fuller's  earth  and  soap,  often 
preceded  with  ammonia  or  stale  urine,  after  each  application 
of  which  they  are  well  washed  out  or  scoured  with  cold  water, 
and  are  then  ready  for  the  dyer.  When  it  is  intended  to 
obtain  them  very  white,  or  to  dye  them  of  a  very  delicate 
shade,  they  are  commonly  sulphured  ;  after  which  they  are 
washed  or  milled  in  cold  water  for  seme  hours,  a  little  finely 
ground  indigo  being  added  towards  the  end,  to  increase 
their  whiteness ;  an  addition  also  made  when  the  cloth  is 
sufficiently  white  without  the  sulphuring  process. 

The  usual  mode  of  sulphuring  woollen  goods  is  to  hang 
them  upon  pegs  or  rails,  or,  in  the  case  of  fleece-wool,  to 
spread  it  about,  at  the  upper  part  of  a  close,  loft}^  room  or 
chamber,  called  a  sulphur-stove.     In  each  corner  of  this 


BLEACHING. 


27 


room  is  set  a  cast-iron  pot  containing  sulpimr,  which,  after 
the  introduction  of  the  goods,  is  set  on  fire,  when  the  door 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber  is  shut  tight  and  clayed. 
This  is  commonly  done  overnight ;  and  by  the  morning,  the 
bleaching  being  finished,  the  goods  are  removed,  washed, 
and  azured. 

Sulphuring,  unless  very  skilfully  managed,  imparts  a 
harsh  feel  to  woollen  goods,  which  is  best  removed  by  a  very 
weak  (lukewarm)  bath  of  soap-and- water ;  but  the  action  of 
soap  in  part  reproduces  the  previous  yellowish-white  tinge. 
Milling  with  cold,  or  lukewarm  water,  tinged  with  indigo, 
is  the  best  substitute. 

Kaw  wool  loses  from  35  to  45  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
by  scouring,  and  i  to  2  per  cent,  more  in  the  subsequent 
operations  of  the  bleacher  ;  the  loss  being  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  fineness  of  the  staple. 

In  technical  language,  the  words  bleaching,  bleacher, 
bleachery,  bleach-works,  tkc,  when  employed  alone,  are 
understood  to  have  reference  only  to  cotton  and  linen. 
This  has  arisen  from  the  enormous  extent  of  these  manufac- 
tures, and  from  the  process  of  bleaching  them  forming  a 
business  entirely  distinct  from  that  of  weaving,  dyeing,  or 
printing  them. 

Bleaching  Silk.  —  The  following  is  extracted  from 
Mr.  Spons'  useful  volume,  "  Workshop  Keceipts."  ''A  lye 
of  white  soap  is  made  by  boiling  in  water  30  lbs.  of  soap  for 
every  100  lbs.  of  silk  intended  to  be  bleached,  and  in  this 
the  silk  is  steeped  till  the  gum  in  the  silk  is  dissolved  and 
separated.  The  silk  is  then  put  into  bags  of  coarse  cloth, 
and  boiled  in  a  similar  lye  for  an  hour.  By  these  processes 
it  loses  25  per  cent,  of  its  original  weight.  The  silk  is  then 
thoroughly  washed  and  steeped  in  a  hot  lye,  composed  of 
\\  lbs.  of  soap  and  90  gallons  of  water,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  litmus  and  indigo  diffused.    After  this,  it  is 


28 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC, 


carried  to  the  '  sulphuring  room.  Two  lbs.  of  sulphur  are 
sufficient  for  loo  lbs.  of  silk.  When  these  processes  are  not 
sufficiently  successful,  it  is  washed  with  clear  hard  w^ater, 
and  sulphured  again." 

Bleaching  Feathers. — The  process  is  as  follows  :—  The 
feathers  are  first  thoroughly  washed  with  soap-and-water, 
to  free  them  from  any  oil  they  may  contain.  They  are 
next  transferred  to  a  bath  composed  of  bichromate  of 
potash  dissolved  in  water,  to  which  has  been  added  a 
few  drops  of  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid.  In  this  bath  they 
rapidly  lose  their  black,  brown,  or  grey  colour,  and  become 
almost  white.  On  being  removed  from  this  bath  they  are 
well  rinsed  in  w^ater,  and  are  then  fit  to  be  dyed,  even  the 
most  delicate  colour.  Great  care  is  required  in  the  process, 
as  the  flue  of  the  feather  is  apt  to  be  destroyed,  if  kept  too 
long  in  the  bath.  A  bleached  feather  may  be  readily  known 
by  the  yellow  colour  of  its  stem. 

Other  methods  have  been  adopted,  such  as  a  bath  of 
chloride  of  lime,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  or  sulphurous  acid, 
tfec,  but  the  bichromate  bath  gives  the  best  results.  , 

Bleaching  Materials  for  Paper :  —  Old  rags  for 
the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  paper-pulp,  are  almost 
universally  bleached  with  chlorine  or  chloride  of  lime ; 
the  former  being  generally  used  in  France,  and  the 
latter  in  England.  The  process  usually  consists  in  (i) 
boiling  in  an  alkaline  lye  to  remove  grease  and  dirt, 
(2)  washing,  (3)  pressing,  (4)  deviling  or  tearing  up  the 
pressed  cake  into  fine  shreds  or  pulp,  (5)  chemicking, 
with  agitation,  for  about  an  hour,  in  a  clear  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime,*  followed  by  (6)  washing,  (7)  souring 


*  The  streogtli  varies  with  the  strength  and  quality  of  the  rags. 
From  2  to  4  lbs.  per  cwt.  of  rags  is  a  common  proportion.  For 
dyed  and  printed  rags  as   much  as  7  or  even  8  lbs.  per  cwt.  are 


BLEACHING. 


29 


with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  at  i  or  2°  Twaddle,  or 
treatment  with  a  solution  of  some  antichlor,*  or  both,  and 
(8)  a  final  washing  and  pressing.  For  the  common  kinds  of 
paper,  the  operations  included  in  No.  7  are  omitted ;  but 
unless  the  whole  of  the  lime-salt  be  removed  from  the  pulp, 
the  paper  made  of  it  is  liable  to  turn  brown  and  become 
rotten  by  age.  In  some  cases  rags  are  bleached  before  being 
divided  and  pulped.  Cotton-waste  is  bleached  in  a  similar 
way  to  rags. 

In  France,  the  chlorine,  in  a  gaseous  form,  is  passed  from 
the  generators  into  the  bleach-cisterns  containing  the  pulp, 
which  in  this  case  must  be  fitted  with  close  covers. 

Printed  Paper,  as  Books,  Engravings,  Maps,  ka. — 
These  when  stained  or  discoloured,  may  be  whitened  by  (i) 
wetting  them  with  pure  clean  water,  (2)  plunging  them  into 
a  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  (3)  passing  them  through 
water  soured  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  (4)  through 
pure  water  until  every  trace  of  acid  be  removed.  This  process 
may  be  further  improved  by  additionally  dipping  them  into 
a  weak  solution  of  some  antichlor,  and  again  washing  them, 
before  finally  drying  them.    It  is  only  rare  and  valuable 


often  employed.  It  is  better,  however,  to  prolong  the  pro- 
cess with  a  weaker  solution,  than  to  hasten  it  by  using  the 
chloride  in  excess.  Large  rectangular  cisterns  of  wood,  or  of  s]ate, 
are  commonly  employed  as  the  bleach-vessels.  Cisterns  of  wood,  or 
brick-work  lined  with  gutta  percha  or  with  asphalto-bitumen,  are 
employed  in  some  paper-mills,  and  answer  admirably. 

*  Antichlore. — Among  bleachers,  any  substance,  agent,  or  means 
by  which  the  pernicious  after-effects  of  chlorine  are  prevented. 
Washing  with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphite  of  soda  is  commonly 
adopted  for  this  purpose.  Chloride  of  tin,  used  in  the  same 
way,  has  been  recommended.  A  cheap  sulphite  of  lime,  prepared 
by  agitating  milk  of  lime  with  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur, 
and  draining  and  air-drying  the  product,  was  patented  in 
England  and  America  by  Prof.  Horsford  under  the  name  of 
*'  Antichloride  of  Lime." 


30 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


original  works  or  specimens  of  art  that  are  worth  this  treat- 
ment, which,  owing  to  the  very  nature  of  paper,  requires 
considerable  address  to  manage.  In  many  cases  a  sufficient 
degree  of  renovation  may  be  effected,  by  simply  exposing  the 
articles,  previously  slightly  moistened,  to  the  fumes  of 
1^  burning  sulphur,  followed  by  passing  them  through  a  vessel 
of  pure  water. 

Straw,  Straw-plait,  and  articles  made  of  them,  are,  on 
the  large  scale,  usually  bleached  by  (i)  a  hot  steep  or  boil 
in  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda,  or  a  stronger  one  of  soda- 
ash,  followed  (2)  by  washing,  and  (3)  by  exposure  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  To  effect  the  last,  the  goods  are 
suspended  in  a  close  chamber  connected  with  a  small  stove, 
in  which  brimstone  is  kept  burning.  On  the  small  scale,  a 
large  chest  or  box  is  commonly  employed.  A  piece  of  brick, 
or  an  old  box-iron  heater,  heated  to  dull  redness,  is  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  an  iron  crock  or  earthen  pan,  a  few  fragments 
of  roll  sulphur  thrown  on,  the  lid  instantly  closed,  and  the 
whole  left  for  some  hours.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
inhahng  the  fumes,  which  are  very  deleterious  as  well 
as  disagreeable  and  annoying.  Straw  goods  are  also 
frequently  bleached  by  the  use  of  a  w^eak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime,  or  of  water  strongly  soured  with  oxalic  acid  or  even 
oil  of  vitriol,  followed  by  very  careful  rinsing  in  clean  water; 
but  here,  as  in  the  former  case,  the  natural  varnish,  dirt, 
grease,  &c.,  must  be  first  removed  by  alkalies  or  soap,  to 
enable  the  chlorine  or  acid  to  act  on  the  fibres. 

Wax. — Wax  is  bleached  by  first  melting  it  at  a  low 
temperature  in  a  cauldron,  from  whence  it  is  allowed  to  run 
out  by  a  pipe  at  the  bottom,  into  a  capacious  vessel  filled 
with  cold  water. 

This  vessel  is  fitted  with  a  large  wooden  cylinder,  w^hich 
turns  upon  its  axis,  and  the  melted  w^ax  falls  upon  this 
cylinder.  The  sui'face  of  the  cylinder  being  always  wet,  the 
wax  does  not  adhere  to  it,  but  becomes  solid,  assuming  the 


BLEACHING. 


31 


form  of  ribbons  as  it  does  so,  and  in  this  shape  becoming- 
distributed  through  the  water  in  the  tub.  The  wax  is  then 
removed  and  placed  upon  large  frames  stretched  upon  linen 
cloth,  which  are  supported  about  18  inches  above  the 
ground,  and  erected  in  a  situation  exposed  to  the  air,  dew, 
and  sun.  The  several  ribbons  thus  placed  on  the  frame 
should  not  exceed  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  they  ought  to  be 
so  moved  about  from  time  to  time,  as  that  each  part  may  be 
equally  exposed.  If  the  weather  be  favourable  the  wax  will 
become  white  in  a  few  days.  It  is  again  remelted,  formed 
into  ribbons,  and  exposed  as  before.  These  operations  are 
continued,  until  the  wax  is  completely  bleacliQd,  after 
which  it  is  melted  and  run  into  moulds. 

The  theory  of  bleaching,  notwithstanding  the  giant 
strides  of  chemistry  of  late  years,  remains  still  unsettled ; 
and  hence  the  processes  employed  are,  for  the  most  part, 
empirical.  It  appears  probable  that  chlorine  acts  by  uniting 
with  the  hydrogen  of  the  water,  or  of  other  compounds 
present,  or  probably  with  that  of  both,  and  that  it  is  the 
oxygen  thus  liberated,  and  whilst  in  the  nascent  state,  that  is 
the  true  operative  agent.  Hence  bleaching  by  chlorine,  or  by 
the  hypochlorites,  may  be  regarded  as  an  oxidation  of  the 
colouring  matter ;  but  whether  the  chlorine  or  the  oxygen 
effects  this  oxidation  is  of  little  practical  importance,  the 
result  being  the  same,  the  destruction  of  the  compound,  and 
the  removal  of  the  colour  that  depends  on  its  existence.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  bleaching  power  of  sulphurous  acid 
is  due  to  it  as  an  oxidizing  or  a  deoxidizing  agent ;  but  the 
last  is  probably  the  case,  with  a  like  destruction  of  the 
compound  constituting  the  colouring  matter.  It  may 
be,  that  sulphurous  acid  acts  as  an  oxidizer,  as  when  it 
decomposes  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ;  or  it  may  act  by  simply 
altering  the  compound  by  itself  combining  with  it,  a  view 
receiving  some  support  from  the  fact  that  wool  whitened 


32 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


by  sulphuring  may  be  restored  to  nearly  its  previous  colour, 
by  merely  treating  it  with  soap  or  alkalies. 

The  bleaching  power  of  light  depends  on  its  actinic  or 
chemical  rays,  which,  like  chlorine,  appear  to  act  as  an  oxi- 
dizing agent. 

Chlorates,  chromates,  chromic  acid,  manganates,  (fee,  have 
been  proposed  as  bleaching  agents  for  textile  filaments  and 
fabrics,  but  without  success  or  practical  advantage.  Im- 
mersion in  water  more  or  less  strongly  impregnated  v.'ith 
sulphurous  acid  has,  however,  been  successfully  substituted 
for  the  common  sulphuring  process,  particularly  for  silk. 

To  avoid  the  injury  of  the  goods  by  sjDarks,  and  by  drops 
of  water  highly  saturated  with  sulphurous  acid  falling  from 
the  roof,  Mr.  Thom  invented  a  method  of  j^assing  them 
rapidly  through,  or  keeping  them  in  constant  motion,  in 
the  sulphuring  chamber.  His  apparatus  is  constructed  on 
the  principle  of  the  washing-machine,  the  fumes  of  burn- 
ing sulphur  being  used  instead  of  water. 

In  addition  to  the  one  previously  mentioned,  the  late 
M.  Tessie  du  Mathey  proposed  a  method  for  bleaching 
as  follows : — He  takes  about  equal  parts  of  permanga- 
nate of  soda  and  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  dissolves 
them  in  lukewarm  water.  The  tissues,  previously  freed 
from  grease,  are  to  be  plunged  into  this  bath  until  they  are 
covered  with  a  brown  coating.  They  are  then  to  be  placed 
in  a  bath  of  sulphuric  acid  at  4  per  cent.,  and  rinsed  after 
the  brown  matter  is  removed.  They  may  be  finally  passed 
through  sulphurous  acid.  Mr.  Ramsay's  method  consists  in 
sprinkling  with  water  equal  parts  of  chloride  of  lime  and 
sulphate  of  magnesia  when  hypochlorite  of  magnesia  is 
formed.  It  may  be  remarked  that  none  of  the  more  modern 
methods  of  bleaching,  which  dispense  with  the  use  of 
chlorine  and  its  compounds,  have  been  found,  when  reduced 
to  practice,  to  be  cheaper,  better,  or  more  advantageous  to 
work  than  those  sanctioned  by  long  experience  and  use. 


CHAPTEE  II. 


DYEING. 

Dyeing  may  be  briefly  described  as  the  art  of  tingeing 
with  various  colouring  matters  certain  absorbent  organic 
bodies,  such  as  v/ool,  silk,  cotton,  flax,  &c. 

Dyeing  is  an  art  of  great  antiquity.  Amongst  the 
ancient  nations,  the  Phoenicians,  the  Romans,  and  the 
Egyptians  were  amongst  those  who  prosecuted  it  the  most 
successfully.  The  manufacture  of  the  historic  Tyrian 
purple  constituted  the  principal  handicraft  of  Tyre,  and  was 
its  chief  article  of  commerce  and  export.  This  dye  was 
yielded  by  a  species  of  mollusk,  one  single  drop  only,  accord- 
ing to  Pliny  and  Aristotle,  being  the  produce  of  one 
animal.  Kobes  dyed  with  Tyrian  purple  were  worn  by  one 
of  the  Phoenician  monarchs  as  far  back  as  1500  years  B.C. 
At  the  commencement  of  our  era,  so  generally  were  gar- 
ments, dyed  with  the  Tyi^ian  purple,  spite  of  their  high  price, 
worn  by  the  wealthy  Roman  citizens,  that  the  Emperor 
Augustus  issued  a  sumptuary  edict,  limiting  the  use  of  such 
apparel  to  himself.  From  the  nature  of  the  dye-stuffs  em- 
ployed by  the  Romans,  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  had 
attained  to  some  proficiency  in  the  art.  They  used  copperas, 
native  alum  mixed  with  copperas,  alkanet  root,  archil, 
madder,  woad,  nut  gall,  and  pomegranate  seeds.  .  The 
ancient  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  seem  to  have  culti- 
vated dyeing  to  any  extent,  since  the  Athenian  people 
mostly  wore  dresses  of  undyed  wool.  According  to  Pliny, 
the  ancient  Egyptians  were  expert  dyers,  and  acquainted 

D 


34 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


with  the  use  of  mordants,  which  it  would  seem  they  de- 
rived from  Hindostan.  The  art  was  also  successfully  culti- 
vated by  some  of  the  ancient  communities  of  Asia  as  well 
as  by  the  ancient  Mexicans  and  Peruvians. 

It  may  be  safely  said,  however,  of  all  these  methods  of 
dyeing,  as  well  as  of  those  in  vogue  prior  to  the  birth  of 
modern  Chemistry,  that  they  were  carried  out  by  rule  of 
thumb  only,  and  upon  no  conscious  scientific  principles. 

It  was  not  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century  that  dyeing  seems  to  have  made  any  progress  in 
Europe.  About  that  period,  this  branch  of  industry  was 
prosecuted  with  remarkable  activity  in  France,  and  shortly 
afterwards  in  Italy.  Among  the  causes  that  contributed  to 
its  spread  may  be  quoted  the  invention  of  printing  and  the 
discovery  of  America.  This  latter  event  gave  a  great  im- 
petus to  the  art  of  dyeing,  because  of  the  numerous  and 
valuable  dye  stuffs  the  i^ew  World  sent  to  the  Old.  Amongst 
these  tinctorial  agents  were  logwood,  Brazil  wood,  annatto, 
and  cochineal.  Owing  to  these  circumstances,  and  addition- 
ally to  the  publication  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  of  a  work  on  dyeing,  by  Rosetti,  considerable  im- 
provements upon  the  old  methods  were  introduced,  and 
subsequently  adopted  throughout  England,  France,  and 
Germany.  The  first  published  English  account  of  the  dye- 
ing process  appeared  in  1664,  in  Spratt's  History  of  the 
Royal  Society." 

In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  indigo  (which  was  employed 
by  the  ancients  as  a  pigment  only),  was  introduced,  or 
attempted  to  be  introduced,  into  this  country  as  a  dye.  It 
seems  hardly  credible  that  the  importation  of  so  important 
and  useful  a  tinctorial  substance  should  have  met  with  an 
opposition  so  fierce  as  it  did,  and  that  its  use  should  have 
been  proscribed  by  Act  of  Parliament,  which  Act  continued 
in  active  operation  until  Charles  II. 's  time.    Logwood  was 


DYEING. 


35 


also  excluded  by  the  same  legislative  enactment.  About 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  Turkey-red-dyeing  was  intro- 
duced into  England  and  France  from  India.  The  first  ap- 
plication of  iron  salts  as  mordants  was  made  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  by  Drebble,  a  Dutch 
dyer.  His  son-in-law  established  large  dye  works  at  Bow- 
in  1643. 

When  a  fabric  is  impregnated  of  a  uniform  colour  over 
its  whole  surface,  it  is  said  to  be  simply  dyed.  If,  however, 
distinct  patterns  or  designs  in  one  or  more  colours  have 
been  impressed  upon  it,  and  (as  in  many  cases)  ]3ortions  of 
it  are  altogether  free  from  dye,  the  process  by  which  this  is 
effected,  and  which  is  a  much  more  complicated  and  difficult 
one  than  the  above,  is  known  as  Calico-Printing,"  and  is 
described  under  that  head  further  on. 

The  process  of  dyeing  would  be  incomplete  unless  the 
fleece,*  yarn  or  cloth  after  being  subjected  to  it,  were  more 


*  Wool  is  sometimes  dyed  in  the  flock  or  fleece  before  being 
spun,  sometimes  as  yarn  or  spun  thread,  and  at  others  in  the  finished 
fabric.  It  is  dyed  in  the  flock  or  fleece  when  it  is  intended  for  the 
best  varieties  of  broad  cloth.  In  fleece  dyeing  there  is  great  liability 
of  the  mass  becoming  so  felted  together  as  to  interfere  considerably 
with  the  after  operations  of  carding  and  spinning.  In  wool  dyeing 
the  use  of  chipped  or  splintered  dye-woods  and  lumpy  dye-pastes 
should  be  avoided,  since  both  these  are  liable  to  leave  little  particles 
which  work  into  the  wool  and  are  very  difficult  of  removal.  This 
inconvenience  may  be  got  over  by  using  the  dye-stuff  in  the  form  of 
a  liquid  extract. 

Silk  is  mosdy  dyed  in  unspun  skeins. 

Cotton  is  rarely  dyed  in  an  unspun  state,  or  as  cotton  wool,  but 
chiefly  as  yarn  or  spun  thread,  arranged  either  in  the  '^cop"  or  the 
hanh,  ov  skein.  In  the  first  case  the  labour  and  time,  and  conse- 
quently the  expense,  of  unravelling  the  skein  are  saved,  but  the  dye 
is  liable  not  to  permeate  the  fibre  so  thoroughly  and  equally,  as  when 
it  is  in  the  hank. 


D  2 


36 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


or  less  enabled  to  retain  the  tinctorial  substance  when  ex- 
posed to  certain  agencies,  such  as  light,  air,  washing  in  soap 
and  water,  &c.  Hence  it  is  indispensable,  both  in  dyeing 
simple  and  caHco-printing,  there  should  be  as  much  as  pos- 
sible a  permanent  adhesion  of  the  colour  to  the  fibre.  The 
varying  degrees  in  which  this  condition  is  carried  out,  con- 
stitute the  difference  between  "  fast  and  loose,"  or  "  fugi- 
tive" dyed  goods. 

The  substances  employed  by  the  dyer  and  calico-printer 
are  obtained  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom,  from 
the  chemical  manufacturer,  and  from  the  tar  colour  factory, 
by  far  the  larger  number  being  procured  from  the  last- 
named  source.  These  artificial  colours,  the  adoption  of 
which  of  late  years  has  more  or  less  led  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  many  of  the  older  dye-stuff's,  are  obtained  from 
what  was  once  a  worthless  and  troublesome  waste  product 
in  gas  making — viz.,  coal-tar.  Hence  they  are  known  aa 
"  Coal-tar  Colours,"  and  they  not  only,  as  a  general  rule, 
possess  much  greater  brilliancy,  depth,  and  variety  of  tint 
than  the  dyes  of  natural  origin,  but  some  of  them  have  a 
chemical  constitution  precisely  the  same  as  the  colouring- 
principles  discovered  in  certain  plants. 

The  textile  fibres  used  in  dyeing,  attract  and  attach  to 
themselves  the  tinctorial  bodies,  with  very  different  degrees 
of  force.  Wool  and  silk  have  a  much  greater  affinity  for 
colouring  principles  than  cotton  or  linen.  Hence  dyes,  more 
or  less,  permanently  fix  themselves  to  the  former  without 
the  intervention  of  a  third  substance,  but  this  intermediary 
(called  a  mordant)  is  required  in  dyeing  cotton  or  linen. 
Colouring  principles  are  divided  by  Bancroft  into  those 
which  do  not  require  a  mordant,  and  are  called  sub- 
stantive colours,  and  those  which  do,  and  which  are  termed 
adjective  colours.  This  distinction,  however,  is  a  loose  one, 
since  the  same  dye  may  be  a  substantive  one  on  one 


DYEING. 


37 


species  of  fibre,  and  an  adjective  one  on  another.  For 
instance,  the  anihne  dyes  are  substantive  when  used  with 
woollen  or  silken  goods,  and  adjective  with  cotton  ones. 

When  an  infusion  of  some  dye-stuff,  such  as  cochineal  or 
madder,  is  mixed  with  alum  or  acetate  of  alumina  and 
a  little  alkali,  a  precipitate  immediately  forms,  consisting 
of  alumina  in  combination  with  colouring  matter,  consti- 
tuting a  lake.  It  is  by  a  similar  reaction,  surmised  to  take 
place  either  within  or  upon  the  fibres,  when  these  and 
certain  metallic  salts  and  dyes  are  brought  together,  that 
the  permanent  dyeing  of  the  fibres  is  effected.  The 
deposition  and  permanent  fixation  of  the  dye  to  the 
fibre  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  other  means  than 
by  the  formation  of  a  lake.  We  may  give  the  following 
as  examples : — The  colouring  matters  of  annatto  and 
safflower  being  soluble  in  alkalies,  an  alkaline  solution  of 
these  substances  is  prepared,  and  the  cloth  is  dipped  into 
it.  It  has  now  become  saturated  with  an  extremely  fugi- 
tive colour,  but  by  passing  it  through  acidulated  water,  the 
alkaline  solvent  is  neutralized,  and  the  tinctorial  matter  is 
precipitated  in  an  insoluble  and  minutely  divided  state  upon 
or  within  the  pores,  and  the  fabric  becomes  permanently  dyed. 
Again,  when  blue  indigo  is  placed  in  a  vat  with  certain  re- 
agents, it  becomes  reduced  or  converted  into  soluble  white 
indigo,  and  when  woollen  or  cotton  fibre  is  then  placed 
in  the  vat,  the  fibre  becomes  saturated  with  the  white 
indigo  solution.  If  now,  the  cloth  be  removed  from  the 
dye-bath  and  exposed  to  the  air,  the  reduced  indigo,  by  the 
absorption  of  oxygen,  is  reconverted  into  the  blue,  which  is 
simultaneously  fixed  to  the  fibre.  Further,  when  a  textile 
fabric  is  immersed  in  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  oxide  of 
copper,  and  afterwards  exposed  to  the  air,  the  ammonia 
escapes,  and  leaves  the  copper  oxide  deposited  in  an  insoluble 
condition  on  the  fabric. 


38 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Various  theories  have  been  propounded  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  union  between  the  fibre  and  the  colouring  matter,  or 
mordant,  combined  with  the  colouring  matter. 

They  may  all,  however,  be  classed  under  two  divisions  : — 
I,  The  Chemical;  and  2,  The  Mechanical  Theory. 

Bergman,  Chevreul  and  other  chemists,  who  were  the 
advocates  of  the  first  view,  maintained  that  a  true  chemical 
combination,  confined  to  the  surface,  occurs  between  the 
fibre  and  the  colouring  matter  or  mordant.  But  since  it 
has  never  been  shown  that  the  fibre  and  the  colouring  prin- 
ciple are  united  in  definite  atomic  quantities,  that  neither 
has  lost  its  distinctive  properties  by  combination,  and  also 
that  the  tinctorial  principle  can  be  removed  from  the  cloth 
to  which  it  has  been  attached,  and  dissolved  by  any  liquid 
which  acts  upon  it,  in  an  uncombined  state,  whilst  the  fibre 
remains  intact,  the  chemical  hypothesis  has  been  very 
generally  abandoned. 

The  chief  exponents  of  the  mechanical  theory  are  Hellot, 
Le  Pileur  d'Apligny,  Persoz,  and  Mr.  Walter  Crum. 
Hellot  supposed  that  the  fibre  was  furnished  with  pores 
which  expanded  under  the  influence  of  heat,  and  thus 
admitted  the  tinctorial  particles,  which  were  retained  owing 
to  the  subsequent  contraction  of  the  fibre  by  cold.  Le 
Pileur  d'Apligny  attributed  the  different  manner  in  which 
various  fibres  act  toward  the  same  colouring  matter,  to  the 
varying  size  and  number  of  their  pores.  Persoz  maintained 
that  the  colours  or  mordanted  colours  fixed  themselves  only 
to  the  surface  of  the  fibre.  Mr.  Walter  Crum,  writing 
on  the  fixation  of  colouring  matters  on  cotton,  says  in  effect, 
either  that  the  pores  of  the  fibre  attract  the  colouring  par- 
ticles from  the  solution  and  precipitate  them  within  the 
fibre,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  carbon  when  it  absorbs 
gases,  and  withdraws  solid  bodies  from  their  solutions ;  or 
that  having  entered  the  pores  in  a  state  of  solution,  the 
colouring  particles  become  fixed  by  the  removal  of  their 


DYEING. 


39 


solvent,  or  in  some  other  manner  so  that  they  are  no  longer 
soluble  in  water.  The  opinions  of  Mr.  Crum  are  generally 
accepted  at  the  present  day. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  examination  by  means  of  the 
most  powerful  microscopes  has  failed  to  throw  any  hght 
upon  the  nature  of  textile  fabrics  that  would  be  of  any 
use  to  the  speculations  of  the  scientific  dyer.  That  an 
instance  of  true  chemical  combination  occurs  when  the 
mordant,  and  the  colouring  principle  of  the  dye  are  brought 
together  under  suitable  conditions,  there  can  be  little  doubt. 
Evidence  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  the  colour  of 
the  product  arising  from  the  reaction  is  not  the  same  as 
that  of  either  of  its  constituents,  and  that  only  definite 
quantities  of  mordant  and  colour  will  give  a  certain  shade; 
besides  which  the  tints  given  by  any  dye-stuff  differ  with 
the  mordant,  and  for  different  strengths  of  the  same  mor- 
dant. When  the  dye  is  brought  into  contact  with  a  mor- 
dant consisting  of  some  metallic  salt,  the  resulting  compound 
may  be  regarded  as  an  insoluble  salt,  in  which  the  colour- 
giving  principle  performs  the  part  of  an  acid,  and  the 
metallic  oxide  of  a  base.  Thus  Turkey  red,  and  the  red 
colour  yielded  by  a  decoction  of  Brazil  wood,  when  madder 
and  Brazil  wood  are  boiled  with  a  salt  of  aluminium,  may 
be  looked  upon,  the  first  as  an  alizarate,  and  the  second  as 
a  brazileate  of  alumina ;  whilst  the  scarlet  cochineal  colour 
Avhich  is  produced  when  cochineal  is  boiled  with  chloride  of 
tin,  may  be  regarded  as  carminate  of  tin. 

The  apparatus  employed  in  mordanting  and  dyeing  textile 
fabrics,  varies  with  the  material  and  the  treatment  to  which 
this  is  subjected.  Unspun  wool  and  rags  are  simply  put 
into  the  dye-bath,  and  moved  about  by  a  large  pole ;  whilst 
3'arns  and  woven  fabrics  are  impregnated  with  the  mordant 
as  well  as  the  dye,  by  means  of  the  "  padding"  machine. 
This  apjDaratus  consists  of  a  reel  (placed  above  the  trough 
holding  the  mordant,  or  dye,  as  the  case  may  be),  around  which 


40 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


the  cloth,  stitched  together  by  the  ends,  is  wound ;  a  roller, 
which  smooths  and  adjusts  the  cloth  before  it  enters  the 
trough ;  a  copper  cylinder,  nearly  at  the  bottom  of  the 
trough,  under  which  the  fabric  is  carried  from  the  roller ;  a 
half-round  polished  steel  bar  to  give  it  equal  tension ;  a  pair 
of  padded  cylinders,  to  remove  superfluous  moisture,  and  a 
reel  to  receive  the  mordanted  or  dyed  cloth.  This  apparatus 
is  worked  by  machinery,  and  is  employed  for  applpng  cold 
solutions  of  the  dye-stuff  to  cotton  goods  in  the  piece.  It  is 
also  used  in  many  of  the  ojoerations  of  bleaching  and  starch- 
ing textile  fabrics. 

In  small  establishments  the  goods  are  dyed  by  immersion 
in  cisterns,  tubs,  or  vats,  and  turned  by  hand  ;  or,  if  in  the 
form  of  yarn,  they  are  generally  hung  on  sticks  and  so 
suspended  in  the  dye-bath.  When  the  goods  are  placed  in 
a  dye  solution,  which  is  required  to  be  kept  at  the  boiling- 
point,  or  near  it,  a  machine  such  as  that  shown  in  the 
engraving  is  used,  a  is  a  reel  turned 
by  steam-power.  The  cotton-piece, 
sown  together  at  the  ends,  is  wound 
round  the  wooden  arms  of  the  reel, 
as  shown  in  the  engraving,  taking 
the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrows, 
and  after  entering  the  dye-bath,  fall- 
ing on  the  shelf,  (/,  and  passing  in 
the  course  of  one  revolution  under 
the  rollers,  c  and  d.  The  orifice, 
is  for  the  admission  of  steam  if  ne- 
cessary. The  pieces  are  thus  passed 
through  the  dye-bath  until  they 
have  acquired  the  required  depth  of 
shade,  during  which  the  cloth  is  made  to  turn  on  the  reel  with 
considerable  speed  and  regularity  of  motion,  precavitions 
which  ensure  a  uniform  absorption  of  the  dye,  and  its  conse- 
quent equal  distribution  over  the  surface  of  the  cloth.  Care 


Fig 


D  YEING. 


41 


must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  goods  getting  entangled  during 
the  "  winching,"  as  they  are  sometimes  Hable  to.  They  must 
also  coil  and  uncoil  smoothly  and  easily.  Great  care  is  necessary 
in  the  selection  of  the  vessels  containing  the  dye-liquid. 
They  should  always  be  made  of  some  material  which  is 
unacted  upon  by  the  contained  fluid.  They  are  variously 
manufactured  of  wood,  stone,  slate,  iron,  and  block  tin. 
For  mordants  and  acid  dyes,  as  well  as  for  bright  coloured 
ones,  iron  vessels  are  inadmissible.  It  is  best  to  have 
special  pans  for  each  dye;  and  in  every  case  to  keep 
them  as  nearly  absolutely  clean  as  possible.  The  quality 
of  the  water  used  in  dyeng  is  a  matter  of  first  impor- 
tance, the  nearer  it  approaches  distilled  water,  except  when 
employed  for  madder  dyeing,  in  purity,  the  better.*  The 
dyed  calico  goods  of  Alsace,  and  the  woollen  stuffs  of 
Berlin,  in  great  measure  owe  their  superiority  to  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  water  supply. 

Hard  waters  which  contain  the  salts  of  lime  and  magnesia 
are  not  well  adajDted  for  dyeing.  The  presence  in  the  water 
of  salts  of  iron  is  also  injurious.  Lime  mostly  exists  in 
water  as  carbonate  or  sulphate,  in  both  which  forms  it  is 
detrimental  to  bright  colours. 

With  dark  and  sombre  colours,  these  salts,  unless  they 
are  present  in  the  water  in  large  quantities,  are  not  particu- 
larly injurious ;  but  the  sulj)hate  in  small  quantity  even 
should  be  avoided  in  madder  dyeing,  or  in  any  case  where 
the  dye  employed  is  of  a  ligneous  nature. 

Magnesia,  where  it  exists  as  carbonate,  is  a  very  prejudicial 
ingredient,  since  it  is  impossible  to  dye  certain  colours 
with  it,  and  it  destroys  the  appearance  of  others.  It  is 
especially  detrimental  in  madder  dyeing.  It  is  rarely 
present,  however,  in  water  in  quantity  large  enough  to  act 

*  Carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  a  constituent  of  some  varieties  of 
madder  root,  is  added  to  the  water  used  for  the  madder  bath,  when 
the  root  and  water  are  deficient  in  it. 


42 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


injuriously.  Iron,  whether  in  large  or  small  amount,  is 
^  most  disastrous  ingredient.  It  converts  pinks  into  drabs, 
and  reds  into  browns  and  chocolate  when  present 
large  quantity,  it  wastes  the  colouring  matter  by  combining 
with  it,  and  so  removing  it  from,  and  preventing  its 
deposition  upon  the  fibre.  In  ordinary  water,  the  carbonates 
of  potash  and  soda  are  seldom  in  quantity  sufiicient  to  act 
prejudicially.  Water  containing  organic  matter  is  particu- 
larly ill  adapted  for  the  processes  of  bleaching  and  cleansing. 
Such  water  is  also  equally  objectionable  for  dyeing.  The 
method  usually  adopted  to  get  rid  of  it  is  filtration  and  ex- 
posure to  the  air  and  light.  Mr.  Crookes  says  another 
method  consists  in  adding  successively  to  each  i,ooo  cubic 
centimetres  (35,316  cubic  feet,  or  220,096  gallons)  of  water, 
which  should  be  contained  in  a  suitable  tank,  about  6  lbs.  of 
dry  perchloride  of  iron,  and  186  lbs.  of  crystallized  carbonate 
of  soda,  both  previously  dissolved  in  as  pure  water  as  can 
be  obtained,  and  to  the  volume  of  about  220  gallons  (35 
cubic  feet).  When  the  iron  and  soda  are  added  to  the 
water,  the  whole  should  be  vigorously  stirred. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  contents  of  the  dye- 
vessel  are  sometimes  heated  by  means  of  steam  blown  into 
them.  In  some  dye-works  the  pans  are  exposed  to  the 
naked  fire ;  at  others  they  are  raised  to  the  required  temper- 
ature by  steam  coils ;  or  in  some  establishments,  they  are 
jacketted,  and  so  heated. 

Before  the  goods  (provided  they  have  been  mordanted) 
are  passed  through  the  dye-beck,  it  is  necessary  first,  to 
fix  or  attach  the  mordant*  to  them ;  and  second,  to  remove 
any  superfluous  adhering  mordant. 


*  The  mordant  is  sometimes  applied  before  the  dj'e,  sometimes 
after,  and  sometimes  simultaneously.  This  latter  method,  however, 
does  not  admit  of  extensive  application,  since  in  most  cases  the 


DYEING. 


43 


A  general  description  of  these  two  processes  will  be  found 
further  on. 

We  append  formulde  for  plain  dyeing  : — 

COTTON. 

Black. — I.  The  goods,  previously  dyed  blue,  are  steeped 
for  about  24  hours  in  a  decoction  of  gall-nuts  or  sumach, 
then  drained,  rinsed  in  water,  and  passed  through  a  bath  of 
acetate  of  iron  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour;  they  are  next 
again  rinsed  in  water,  and  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  air  ; 
after  which  they  are  passed  a  second  time  through  the  bath, 
to  which  a  little  more  iron-liquor  is  previously  added.  The 
whole  process  is  repeated,  if  necessary,  according  to  the 
intensity  of  the  shade  of  black  desired. 

2.  The  goods  are  steeped  in  a  mordant  of  acetate  of  iron, 
worked  well,  and  then  passed  through  a  bath  of  madder  and 
logwood  for  2  hours.    Less  permanent  than  No.  i. 

About  2  oz.  of  coarsely  powdered  galls,  or  4  oz.  of  sumach, 
are  required  for  every  pound  of  cotton,  in  the  process  of 
galling.  The  first  should  be  boiled  in  the  water,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  \  gal.  of  water  to  every  i  lb.  of  cotton. 
The  sumach-bath  is  better  made  by  mere  infusion  of  that 
dye-stuff  in  very  hot  water. 

3.  For  10  lbs.  of  Cloth. — The  goods  are  put  into  a  boiling 
bath  made  of  3  lbs.  of  sumach,  and  allowed  to  steep,  with 
occasional  "  w^orking,"  until  the  liquor  is  perfectly  cold  ;  they 
are  next  passed  through  lime  water,  and,  after  having 

products  are  insoluble  lakes,  which  give  rise  to  loose  and  inferior 
colours.  Again,  the  fixing  of  the  mordant  in  calico-printing  involves  a 
mimber  of  processes  which  are  not  required  in  piece-dyeing.  So,  again, 
whilst  "Wool  is  almost  always  dyed  at  a  boiling  temperature,  in  most 
cases  the  dyeing  of  cotton  is  performed  either  in  the  cold  or  at  a  tem- 
perature of  from  90°  to  100°  Fahr.  (32-2°  to  38°  C). 


44 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


drained  for  a  few  minutes,  immediately  transferred  to  and 
worked  for  an  hour  in  a  warm  solution  of  2  lbs.  of  copperas  ; 
after  free  exposure  to  the  air  for  about  an  hour  they  are 
again  passed  through  lime  water,  and,  after  draining, 
worked"  for  an  hour  in  a  bath  made  with  3  lbs.  of  log- 
wood, and  T  lb.  of  fustic  ;  they  are  then  lifted,"  and  |  lb. 
of  copperas  being  added,  they  are  returned  to  the  bath, 
"  worked"  well  for  about  30  minutes,  and  finished.  Good 
and  deep. 

Instead  of  copperas,  iron-liquor  may  be  used,  observing  to 
take  1 1  pint  of  the  latter  (of  the  ordinary  strength)  for 
every  i  lb.  of  the  former  ordered  above. 

4.  For  40  lbs.  of  Cotton. — Boil  or  scald,  sumach  10  lbs. 
Let  the  cloth  or  yarn  remain  in  this  for  18  hours  ;  wring- 
out;  run  through  acetate  of  iron  at  40°  Twaddle  four 
turns  or  for  ^  an  hour ;  wring  out ;  repeat  and  thoroughly 
wash  in  three  waters.  Next  boil  together  8  lbs.  logwood  and 
I  lb.  fustic  ;  put  off  the  boil  and  enter,  or  the  clear  portion  of 
the  decoction  may  be  decanted  into  another  vessel ;  one  run, 
continue  h  an  hour ;  wring  out ;  repeat ;  sadden  with  i  lb.  of 
copperas  ;  2  runs ;  wash  and  dry. 

5.  For  100  lbs.  of  Cotton. —  Steep  in  a  decoction  of  30  lbs. 
of  sumach  at  a  boiling  heat,  and  let  stand  till  quite  cold,  then 
pass  through  lime  water,  and  then  directly  after,  work  foi- 
I  hour  in  a  solution  of  20  lbs.  of  copperas.  After  this  ex- 
pose to  the  air  for  i  hour ;  then  pass  a  second  time  thi'ough 
lime  water,  and  wash  and  work  for  i  hour  in  a  bath  of  30  lbs, 
logwood  and  10  lbs.  fustic ;  lift  and  add  2  lbs.  copperas  ;  and 
work  I  hour  longer,  and  finish. 

d.  Common Blach.  5  pieces  =  75  lbs.  are  j)added  through 
acetate  of  iron  (iron  liquor)  at  8°  Twaddle,  dried  and  after- 
wards passed  through  lime  water  (milk  of  lime) ;  afterwards 
washed,  then  dyed  with  35  lbs.  of  ground  logwood  and  3  lbs. 
of  fustic  extract  at  48°  Twaddle  ;  in  this  they  are  worked 


DYEING. 


45 


for  \  an  hour  at  boil ;  then  winched,  rinsed,  and  dried.  They 
are  further  run  through  a  Httle  starch  water  containing  a 
small  quantity  of  soap,  and  finally  dried  for  finishing. 

7.  Good  Common  Black  (Carlisle  Finish). — -7  pieces  = 
85  lbs.  are  worked  in  the  jigger,  cold  for  6  ends,  and  afterwards 
passed  through  a  water-mangle  to  squeeze  out  a  large  portion 
of  the  liquor ;  then  dried  ;  they  are  then  padded  in  acetate  of 
iron  at  8°  Twaddle,  and  dried  out  of  it ;  afterwards  again 
entered  into  the  jigger,  which  is  charged  with  sufiicient 
water  and  5  lbs.  of  chalk  (carbonate  of  lime) ;  give  two  ends ; 
then  wash,  and  afterwards  dye  with  48  lbs.  ground  logwood 
and  3I  lbs.  fustic  extract  at  48°  Twaddle ;  work  in  the  jigger 
for  45  minutes  at  boil wash  and  dry. 

8.  Chrome  Black  (Italian  Black). — 6  pieces  satin  (cotton) 
==108  lbs.  Work  in  jigger  containing  20  lbs.  of  sumach 
(Palermo),  and  20  lbs.  of  myrabolams,  in  as  little  water  as 
possible,  and  at  boil  for  7  to  8  ends  ;  then  run  oif  the  liquor 
and  recharge  the  jigger  with  1 5  gals,  water  and  5  lbs.  sulphate 
of  copper,  cold ;  give  4  ends  in  this ;  again  wash  well,  and 
recharge  the  jigger  with  bichromate  of  potash,  at,  say,  2° 
Twaddle;  give  2  ends  cold,  and  then  3  ends  at  boil;  again  wash 
and  afterwards  dye  in  the  jigger,  it  being  recharged  with 
72  lbs.  ground  logVN^ood  and  \\  lbs.  fustic  extract  at  48° 
Twaddle  ;  work  backward  and  forward  at  boil  for  i  hour; 
then  rinse  in  a  weak  solution  of  soda  or  potash,  say,  8  oz. 
to  20  gals,  water;  wash  and  dry. 

9.  Aniline  Black  with  Vanadium.  (Pinkney's  Patent.) — 
Take  of  hydrochlorate  of  aniline,  150  parts  ;  salt  of  vanadium, 
J  part;  chloride  of  nickel,  20  parts;  potassium  chlorate, 
100  parts;  water,  2,500  parts.  The  yarns,  after  being 
steeped  in  this  mixture,  may  be  dried  either  hot  or  cold.* 


*  In  practice  the  salt  of  vanadium  may  be  considerably  reduced  in 
amount,  and  the  chloride  of  nickel  omitted. 


46 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


10.  (De  Yinaxt)  :  For  Cotton  Yarns. — This  process  must 
be  performed  with  great  care,  otherwise  the  colours  will  be 
uneven  and  clouded.  The  cotton  yarn,  first  well  boiled  out, 
receives  7  turns  in  a  bath,  consisting  of  200  grammes  of 
sulphate  of  copper  for  every  kilo  of  material  dissolved  in 
water,  which  has  been  slightly  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  It  must  be  then  thoroughly  wrung  out.  It  is  next 
subjected  to  5  turns,  in  a  bath  containing  50  grammes  of 
hydrosulphate  of  soda  to  a  litre  of  water,  the  temperature 
of  which  is  at  50°  C.  (123°  Fahr.) ;  after  which  it  is 
rinsed.  It  then  receives  7  turns  in  a  bath  of  10  litres 
of  water,  180  grammes  of  chlorate  of  potassium,  and 
170  grammes  of  chloride  of  ammonium,  dissolved  by  means 
of  heat,  to  which  is  added  480  grammes  of  chloride  of 
anihne.  It  is  then  stretched  out  very  regularly  in  a  drying- 
room,  kept  at  48"  C.  (118-4°  Fahr.),  for  48  hours.  After 
this  it  is  turned  4  times  at  30°  C.  (86°  Fahr.),  in  a  bath 
which  contains  i  gramme  of  bichromate  of  potassium  to 
the  litre  ;  after  which  it  is  well  rinsed  and  dried.  Should 
the  blacks  have  acquired  a  reddish  tone,  they  should  be 
passed  through  a  bath  consisting  of  i  litre  of  bleacliing 
liquid  at  6°  B.,  and  100  litres  of  cold  water. 

1 1 .  For  1 00  lbs. — Mix  6  lbs.  9  oz.  of  aniline  oil  with  8  lbs. 
12  oz.  of  hydrochloric  acid  at  32°  Twaddle.  When  the  mix- 
ture has  cooled,  add  to  it  a  solution  consisting  of  4  lbs.  6  oz. 
of  chlorate  of  potassium  and  66  parts  of  water;  and  then  42^ 
pints  of  solution  of  chloride  of  iron  at  32°  Twaddle.  Steep 
the  bleached  yarn  from  8  to  i  o  hours  in  this  liquid,  previously 
diluted  with  water  at  about  100°  Fahr.  (38°  C);  remove, 
and  then  place  it  in  a  solution  of  soda  at  23°  Twaddle. 
Then  wash  or  steep  for  |  hour  in  a  dye-beck,  made  up  with 
66  parts  of  water  and  7  oz.  of  chromate  of  potassium,  at  about 
112°  Fahr.  (44*4°  C).  This  prevents  the  dye  turning  green 
afterwards.    Wash  and  pass  the  yarn  through  a  mixture 


DYEING. 


47 


of  17^  oz.  of  emulsive  oil  (such  as  is  used  in  Turkey  red 
dying),  2  lbs.  3  oz.  potash,  and  66  parts  of  water,  and  dry 
immediately. 

N.B. — Mr.  James  Chad  wick  writes  us  : — "  To  produce 
plain  aniline  black,  we  print  a  colour  composed  of  chloride 
of  aniline,  chlorate  of  soda  and  vanadiate  of  ammonia.  This 
colour  we  print  on  with  what  is  called  a  "  pin  pad  roller," 
and  on  both  sides  of  the  fabric,  thus  completely  covering 
every  thread.  When  dried  as  usual  after  printing,  we 
age  through  an  aniline  ager  at  from  180°  Tahr.  (82*2°  C), 
and  170°  moisture;  afterwards  pass  through  a  solution  of 
bichromate  of  potash  at  2°  Twaddle,  cold.  Wash  well 
and  slightly  soap  ;  wash  and  dry.  I  believe  most  of  the 
plain  aniline  blacks  are  done  this  way."  Mr.  Chadwick 
adds : — "  I  have  not  seen  a  good  dyed  aniline  black. 
The  fibre  of  the  fabric  is  always  more  or  less  injured, 
and  the  colour  always  turns  green  in  the  presence  of 
sulphuric  acid,  which  abounds,  as  you  know,  in  towns 
where  much  coal  is  consumed." 

Brown. — 12.  Bismarh  Broivn. — For  10  lbs.  of  cloth 
or  yarn,  work  in  a  hot  decoction  of  ^  lb.  of  sumach  for 
I  hour;  wring  out  and  work  for  20  minutes  in  a  solution 
consisting  of  4^  oz.  of  stannate  of  sodium,  and  then 
thoroughly  wash  from  this.  Dissolve  4  oz.  of  Bismark 
Brown  in  the  dye  beck  or  boiler,  and  work  the  goods  in  this 
for  I  hour,  pvt  120°  Fahr.  (48*8°  C),  or  at  a  heat  about  as 
hot  as  the  hand  can  bear ;  then  wring  out  to  dry.  If  a 
redder  shade  than  this  preparation  will  yield,  be  desired,  a 
little  red  liquor  must  be  added  to  the  dye  ;  if  a  yellower 
tint  be  required,  this  may  be  got  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
fustic. 

13.  Catechu  Brovm. — For  10  lbs.  of  cloth  or  yarn.  The 
goods  must  be  worked  at  a  boiling  heat  for 
steeped  for  several  hours,  if  the  liquor  is  allowed  to  cool, 


48 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


in  2  lbs.  of  catechu,*  and  then  worked  for  |  hour  in  a  hot 
sokition  of  potassium  bichromate,  and  washed  from  this  in 
hot  water.  A  httle  soap  added  to  the  washing  water  im- 
proves the  colour. 

14.  Dark  Brown. 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.    Work  in  jigger,  charged  with 
12  gallons  boiling  water,  and 

20  lbs.  catechu, 

5  lbs.  sumach  (Palermo),  and 

3  lbs.  sulphate  of  copper ;  give  in  this  5  ends,  then 
recharge  with  i  gallon  acetate  of  iron,  at  12°  Twaddle,  and 
5  lbs.  sulphate  of  iron  cold,  and  12  gallons  water  cold.  Give 
4  ends,  and  afterwards  wash  again,  and  recharge  jigger  with 
1 2  galls,  water,  boiling,  and  3  lbs.  bichromate  of  potash ;  give 
4  ends,  then  wash  and  dry. 

15.  Medium  and  Liglit  Broion  can  be  obtained  by  decreas- 
ing the  quantities  of  ingredients. 

16.  Bright  Broion. — Cotton. 
72  lbs.  cloth  in  jigger,  with 

9  gallons  boiling  water  in  which  dissolve  ; 

6  lbs.  catechu  ;  give  4  ends ;  recharge  jigger  with 
9  gallons  hot  water,  140°  Fahr.  (60°  C),  and 

8  oz.  bichromate  of  potash,  and 

.  2  oz.  sulphate  of  copper.    Give  3  ends  in  this,  and 

wash  again ;  recharge  jigger  with 
10  gallons  warm  water,  blood  heat ; 

4  oz.  Bismark  brown  powder,  and 

80Z.  protochloride  of  tin,  at  120°  Twaddle,  give  4 
ends  in  this,  and  afterwards  wash  and  dry  as 
usual. 

This  gives  a  beautiful  colour. 

*  Boil  I  lb.  of  catechu  in  7  or  8  lbs.  of  water  until  dissolved,  then 
add  2  oz.  nitrate  or  sulphate  of  copper,  and  stir ;  after  which  it  will 
be  ready  for  use. 


DYEING. 


49 


17.  Prussian  Blue. 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.    Work  in  jigger,  containing 
1 5  gallons  cold  water, 
5  quarts  nitrate  of  iron,  at  84°  Twaddle, 
I  pint  protochloride  of  tin  at  1 20°  Twaddle ;  give  4  ends, 
afterwards  wash  in  cold  water,  and  recharge  jigger 
with 

15  gallons  water,  in  which  is  dissolved 
5  lbs.  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  and 
I  gill  sulphuric  acid,  at  170°  Twaddle. 
Give  four  ends,  wash  and  dry. 

18.  Aniline  Blue. 

7  pieces  =84  lbs.  Work  in  stannate  of  soda  at  4° 
Twaddle,  4  ends,  then  in  sulphuric  acid,  1°  Twaddle,  4  ends, 
and  afterwards  4  ends  in  water,  then  recharge  jigger  with 
8  oz.  cotton  aniline  blue,  and  8  oz.  alum  in  twelve  gallons 
water,  five  to  six  ends,  wash  and  dry. 

19.  Navy  Blue. 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.    Work  in  jigger  charged  with 
10  lbs.  sumach, 
10  lbs.  ground  logwood, 

15  gallons  boiling  water,  give  4  ends,  then  recharge 
jigger  with  4  quarts  nitrate  of  iron  at  84°  Twaddle,  and  9 
gallons  of  cold  water,  in  w^hich  give  4  ends,  and  afterwards 
wash,  then  recharge  with  15  gallons  water,  4  lbs.  yellow 
prussiate  of  potash,  and  half  gill  sulphuric  acid  at  170° 
Twaddle,  give  four  ends,  and  wash  in  cold  water,  recharge 
with  1 5  gallons  water  "  cold,"  and  6  ozs.  BB  violet  crystals 
(coal-tar),  give  five  ends  in  this  and  dry. 

20.  Bright  Green. 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.  Work  in  jigger  charged  with  14  lbs. 
sumach  boiling,  give  4  ends,  recharge  with    15  gallons 

E 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC, 


water,  3  gills  protochloride  of  tin  at  120°  Twaddle,  and 
4  oz.  of  tartrate  of  antimony  (tartar  emetic)  in  cold  water, 
give  4  ends  and  afterwards  wash.  Again  recharge  with  10 
gallons  of  cold  water,  and  14  oz.  of  malachite  green  (coal- 
tar),  and  from  4  to  7  lbs.  of  fustic  extract  at  48°  Twaddle, 
according  to  shade  of  green  required.  Give  4  ends  in  this, 
wash  and  dry. 

21.  Slate  {Silesian), 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.  worked  in  jigger  charged  with 
15  gallons  logwood  liquor  (at  i  lb.  per  gallon). 
15     „    water   at  120°  Fahr.  (49°  C),  give  4  ends, 
then  recharge  jigger  with  30  gallons  cold  water, 
and  dissolve  in  it  4  lbs.  sulphate  of  iron,  give  3 
ends,  then  dry. 
If  the  shade  of  slate  is  too  red  the  addition^  of  a  little 
fustic  extract  corrects  that,  of  course. 

22.  Dark  Mauve  or  Violet. 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.  worked  in  jigger  charged  with  12  lbs. 
of  ground  sumach  and  1 2  gallons  of  hot  water,  give  4  ends, 
and  afterwards  give  6  ends  in  jigger  charged  with  3  gills  of 
protochloride  of  tin  at  120°  Twaddle,  and  12  gallons  of  cold 
water,  afterwards  wash,  and  then  charge  jigger  with  9  gallons 
water  (hot),  and  8  oz.  KE.  violet  crystals,  give  4  to  6  ends, 
and  wash  and  dry  as  usual. 

N.B. — The  above  gives  a  deep  shade  of  mauve.  If  a 
medium  or  lighter  hue  be  required,  reduce  the  quantities  of 
ingredients  used. 

If  a  blue  mauve  be  required,  use  6  B  violet  crystals  instead 
of  the  RE,,  and  so  on  for  any  other  tone  or  shade  of  mauve* 

23.  Chamois. 

5  pieces  ==80  lbs.  cloth. 
12  gallons  water,  at  100"  Fahr.  (377°  C.) ;  jigger 
charged  with 


DYEING. 


51 


3  pints  catechu  4°  Twaddle,  give  1  end,  then  add 

2  pints  catechu  at  4°  Twaddle,  give  4  ends  more, 

recharge  jigger  with  same  water,  and 

3  quarts  bichromate  potash  (i  lb.  per  gallon),  give  i 

end,  then  add 
2  quarts  more  bichromate  potash  (i  lb.  per  gallon), 
give  4  ends — wash. 

24.  Canary. 

5  pieces  =  80  lbs.  cloth,  jigger  charged  with 
12  gallons  cold  water, 

2  pints  fustic  extract  at  48°  Twaddle,  give  i  end,  then 
add 

I J  pints  fustic  extract  at  48°  Twaddle,  give  4  ends,  and 
recharge  jigger  with  the  same  quantity  of  water, 
and  3  lbs.  of  alum,  give  4  ends,  and  afterwards  2 
in  water,  and  then  the  goods  are  ready. 

25.  Claret. 

72  lbs.  cloth,  jigger  charged  with 

12  gallons  of  hot  water  at  130°  Fahr.  (49°  C),  and 

10  lbs.  sumach,  and 

10  lbs.  ground  logwood,  give  5  ends  in  this,  then  add 
to  it 

5  gills  protochloride  of  tin  at  120°  Twaddle,  give  4 
ends  more  and  wash,  recharge  jigger  with 
12  gallons  hot  water,  120°  Fahr., 
10  lbs.  ground  logwood,  and 
5  lbs.  peachwood,  give  4  ends  in  this  and  afterwards 

add  to  same  charge, 
8  oz.  ground  alum,  dissolve,  and  give  2  more  ends, 
wash  as  usual. 

26.  Drab  {Silesian). 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.  jigger  charged  with 
10  lbs.  sumach. 


E  2 


52  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 

I  lb.  ground  logwood, 
I  lb.  ground  fustic, 
4  oz.  annatto, 

20  gallons  water  at  170°  Falir.  (76'6°  C),  give  4  ends. 
Then  recharge  with  1 2  gallons  water  in  which  is  ' 
dissolved  3  lbs.  sulphate  of  iron. 
I  pint  nitrate  of  iron  at  84°  Twaddle. 
I  gill  sulphuric  acid  at  170°  Twaddle,  give  2  ends,  and 
wash  and  dry. 

27.  Bright  Drab. 

72  lbs.  cloth,  jigger  charged  with 
lbs.  sumach. 

9  gallons  hot  water  at   120°  Fahr.  (49°  C),  give  4 
rounds,  then  add 

4  oz.  sulphate  of  iron,  give  4  more  rounds.  Again 

charge  with  9  gallons  of  hot  water  at  120°  F. 
2 1  lbs.  fustic,  and 

5  oz.  extract  of  indigo,  give  4  rounds  and  wash. 
When  cotton  is  dyed  with  the  coal-tar  colours,  various 

mordants  differing  with  the  specific  colours  are  employed. 
We  give  a  list  of  the  most  important  of  these  mordants  : — 
Sumach,  tannic  acid,  alumina  (acetate),  glycerine,  oleine, 
stannate  of  sodium.  Stannic  and  tannic  acids,  together  and 
in  conjunction  with  alumina,  are  frequently  used,  and  are 
the  most  potent  and  effective.  Acetate  or  nitro-acetate  of 
chromium  are  also  good  mordants  for  the  darker  colours. 
Lead  (acetate),  Glauber  salts,  and  arsenic  are  likewise  em- 
ployed, but  not  quite  so  extensively,  at  least  lead  and 
arsenic  are  not.  Further  on  will  be  found  representative 
formulae  for  the  coal-tar  colours,  by  following  which,  and 
having  recourse  to  the  above-mentioned  mordants  (which 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  formulae  referred  to)  almost 
every  aniline  colour  can  be  made  available. 


DYEING. 


53 


28.  Bright  Rose  Pink. 

7  pieces  —  84  lbs.  worked  in  jigger,  with  1 2  gallons  water, 
cold,  containing  3  lbs.  acetate  of  lead,  give  3  ends,  and 
afterwards  2  ends  in  lime-water  (milk  of  lime),  and  then 

4  ends  in  cold  water  to  remove  the  lime.  Then  recharge 
the  jigger  with  10  gallons  water,  and  6  to  8  oz.  of  eosine,  give 

5  ends  at  about  90  to  100°  Fahr.  (32'2°-377°  C).  After- 
wards pass  through  mangle,  and  dry. 

IST.B. — Erythnosine  may  be  used  instead  of  eosine,  when 
a  yellower  shade  of  rose  is  required. 

These  two  red-colouring  matters  can  also  be  fixed  by 
using  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  instead  of  lead  and 
lime-water,  but  the  colours  are  not  so  full  in  tone. 

These  pinks  are  not  permanent. 

29.  Light  Pink  (^Magenta). 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.  worked  in  jigger,  charged  with  1 2 
gallons  of  cold  water,  and  i|  lbs.  stannate  of  soda,  give  4 
ends,  and  then  4  ends  in  jigger  with  i  gill  of  sulphuric  acid, 
at  170°  Twaddle,  and  20  gallons  of  water.  Then  wash  and 
recharge  jigger  with  3  pints  of  magenta  liquor  (at  i  oz. 
of  crystals  per  gallon),  and  9  gallons  of  cold  water,  give 
4  to  6  ends,  mangle  and  dry  as  usual, 

30.  SaflBLower  Pink. 

7  pieces  =  84  lbs.,  worked  in  jigger  with  gallons  water 
at  blood  heat,  and  9  oz.  safflower  liquor  of  commerce,  give 
3  to  4  ends,  then  add  to  the  same  bath  ^  gill  sulphuric  acid 
at  170°  Twaddle,  give  2  ends  more  in  this  liquor,  which 
is  to  precipitate  the  coloiuing  matter  into  the  fibre  of  the 
cloth.    Wash,  mangle,  and  dry. 

31.  Barwood  Red. 

72  lbs.  cloth  padded  through  stannate  of  soda,  at  12° 
Twaddle.  Then  passed  through  sulphuric  acid  at  2°  Twaddle, 
and  washed,  then  in  jigger  charged  with  9  lbs.  sumach,  and 


54 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


60  lbs.  barwood;  run  in  this  charge  at  boil  for  hours. 
Afterwards  wash. 

32.  Rich  Orange. 

72  lbs.  cloth  ;  jigger  charged  with 

12  gallons  hot  water,  120°  Fahr.  (49°  C),  and 

12  oz.  soda  ash, 

4  lbs.  annatto,  dissolve  and  add 

4  lbs.  turmeric — give  4  ends  in  this,  then  add  to  same 
8  oz.  (fluid)  of  sulphuric  acid  at  170"^  Twaddle,  give  2 
ends  in  it,  and  afterwards  wash.     This  is  much 
cheaper  than  chrome  orange,  and  good. 

33.  Bright  Yellow  {Turmeric). 

72  lbs.  cloth,  say  6  pieces,  70  yards.  Run  the  goods  in 
jigger  in  hot  water  to  thoroughly  and  evenly  wet  them, 
then  to  20  gallons  of  hot  water  at  140°  Fahr.  (60°  C), 
add  7  lbs.  turmeric,  give  4  ends,  then  add  to  the  same  liquor 
4  fluid  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  at  170°  Twaddle,  and  give 
the  goods  2  ends  more.    Afterwards  wash,  mangle,  and  dry. 

34.  Chrome  Yellow. 

72  lbs.  cloth.  Pad  through  acetate  of  lead,  at  strength  of 
8  oz.  per  gallon,  then  pass  into  jigger  charged  with  lime- 
water,  wash  in  water,  and  recharge  jigger  with  9  gallons  of 
water,  in  which  is  dissolved  i|  lbs.  bichromate  of  potash, 
give  4  ends,  and  afterwards  wash.  Should  the  yellow 
be  rather  too  much  of  a  gold  colour,  i  or  2  ends  in  weak 
hydrochloric  acid  will  bring  it  back. 

DYEING  WOOL  AND  SILK. 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  coal-tar  colours,  which  are  now 
so  extensively  used  for  dyeing  wool  and  silk,  most  of  the  older 
colouring  matters  are  sparingly  used,  except  for  the  produc- 
tion of  dark  colours,  such  as  chocolates,  dark  browns,  maroons, 
and  blacks,  as  well  as  some  intense  colours.    The  coal-tar 


DYEING. 


55 


colours  are  much  easier  of  application,  many  of  them  are 
cheaper  than  the  old  dye  stuffs,  and  most  of  them  require 
])ut  little  mordant,  and  for  silk  and  wool,  some  of  them, 
indeed,  none. 

Their  employment,  therefore,  entails  less  labour,  and  they 
generally  give  brighter  tints  and  more  regular  results.  The 
yarn  or  cloth  must,  of  course,  be  scoured  or  bleached  before 
dyeing. 

The  woollen  goods  are  not  worked  in  jiggers,  but  in  dye 
vessels,  the  quantities  of  water  in  each  case  being  as  much 
as  easily  to  work  the  cloth  in.* 

Silk. 

1.  Peacock  Blue. 

80  lbs.  silk, 
I  pint  sulphuric  acid  at  170°  Twaddle, 

10  oz.  methylin  blue  crystal  dye  at  120°  to  160°  Fahr. 
(49°-7i°  C),  usual  manipulation. 

2.  Peacock  Blue. 

80  lbs.  cloth  or  yarn, 
3  oz.  biborate  of  soda  (borax), 

1 1  oz.  peacock  blue  crystals,  enter  at  140°  Fahr.  (60  C), 

and  bring  to  boil  in  twenty  minutes. 

Wool. 

3.  Black. 

5  pieces  =  100  lbs.  cloth, 
150  gallons  hot  water  (usual  vessels), 
3 1  lbs.  bichromate  of  potash. 


*  In  wool  dyeing,  the  goods  should  in  every  case  be  entered  just 
below  boiling  point,  cand  be  well  saturated  with  the  dye-liquor,  before 
the  bath  is  raised  to  boiling. 


56 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


I  pint  sulphuric  acid,  at  170°  Twaddle,  enter  and 
work  at  boil  for  i  hoiu",  then  wash  in  cold  water 
and  dye  in 
150  gallons  hot  water,  and 
37  lbs.  ground  logwood, 
7  lbs.  fustic,  chips  or  ground,  enter  at  boil,  and  work 
for  I  hour  at  boil,  when  add  to  the  bath 
if  lbs.  sulj)hate  of  copper.    Continue  to  work  in  this 
bath  at  boil  for  30  minutes.     Wash  in  cold  watei- 
and  dry. 

Some  dyers  use  a  little  alum  to  the  mordant  bath. 

4.  Superior  Jet  Black. 

5  pieces  =100  lbs.   cloth;   dyeing  vessel  containing 
about 

150  gallons  hot  water,  in  which  dissolve 

3  lbs.  bichromate  of  potash;  work  in  this  at  boil  for  i 
hour,  afterwards  wash  in  cold  water.    Then  in 
same  vessel  again,  charged  with 
150  gallons  hot  water,  add 
34  lbs.  ground  logwood,  and 
7  lbs.  fustic,  ground  or  chipped ;   enter  just  below 
boiling,  and  immediately  raise  to  boil,  and  work  in 
it  for  I  hour  and  20  minutes.    AVash  in  cold  watei- 
and  dry. 

5.  Superior  Blue  Black. 

5  pieces  =100  lbs.  cloth,  in  an  ordinary  dyeing  vessel 
containing  about 
150  gallons  water,  dissolve 

3  lbs.  bichromate  of  potash,  work  in  this  at  boil  for  i 
hour,  afterwards  wash  in  cold  water.    Then  in 
same  vessel  again,  charged  with 
150  gallons  hot  water,  add 

30  lbs.  ground  logwood;  enter  same  goods,  at  180^ 


DYEING. 


57 


Falir.  (82°  C),  and  then  raise  the  bath  to  boiling, 
in  which  work  the  goods  for  \\  hours.  Then 
wash  in  cold  water  and  dry. 

6.  Dark  Brown. 

5  pieces  =  100  lbs.  cloth, 
20  lbs.  turmeric, 

4  lbs.  extract  of  indigo, 
15  lbs.  cudbear, 

2  pints  sulphuric  acid,  170°  Twaddle, 

10  lbs.  sulphate  of  soda,  enter  at  boil,  and  work  for 

about  90  minutes. 

7.  Claret. 

5  pieces  =100  lbs.  cloth, 
80  to  100  gallons  water, 

30  lbs.  cudbear, 

3  gills  sulphuric  acid,  at  170°  Twaddle, 

1  lb.  extract  of  indigo, 

2  oz.  magenta  (acid)  crystals,  heat        to  near  boil 

before  entering,  and  work  for  75  minutes  at  boil. 

8.  Dark  Chocolate. 

80  lbs.  cloth  or  yarn, 
80  to  100  gallons  water, 

3  lbs.  bichromate  of  potash, 
1 5  lbs.  peachwood,  ground, 

3 1  lbs.  logwood,  ground, 

1 1  lbs.  tartrate  of  potash,  usual  manipulation,  boil  30 

to  40  minutes. 

9.  Red  Drab. 

5  pieces  =  100  lbs.  cloth,  usual  water  in  vessel, 
13  lbs.  sulphate  of  soda, 

4  pints  sulphuric  acid,  170°  Twaddle, 


58 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


6  lbs.  alum, 
12  oz.  bitartrate  of  potash, 
6  oz.  fustic  extract  at  48°  Twaddle, 
6  oz.  cudbear, 

I  oz.  extract  of  indigo,  enter  at  boil  and  work  45 
minutes. 

10.  Green. 

3  pieces  =  100  lbs.  cloth, 
80  to  100  gallons  water, 
10  lbs.  alum. 

1  pint  sulphuric  acid,  at  170°  Twaddle, 

10  lbs.  extract  of  indigo. 

1 1  lbs.  picric  acid. 

Boil  and  enter,  and  work  for  90  minutes. 

11.  Dark  Green. 

5  pieces  —  100  lbs.  cloth, 

2  pints  sulphuric  acid,  170°  Twaddle, 
5  lbs.  sulphate  of  soda, 

1 5  lbs.  extract  of  indigo, 
I J  lbs.  picric  acid, 

5  lbs.  cudbear. 
Enter  at  boil,  and  work  for  90  minutes. 

12.  Olive. 

5  pieces  =  1 00  lbs.  cloth.    Usual  quantity  of  water  in 
vessel, 

1 6  lbs.  sulphate  of  soda, 
2^  lbs.  alum, 

8  oz.  bitartrate  of  potash, 
2 1  pints  sulphuric  acid,  170°  Twaddle, 
8  oz.  picric  acid, 
8  oz.  extract  of  indigo, 
i^  oz.  cudbear. 
Enter  at  boil,  and  work  45  to  60  minutes. 


D  YEING. 


59 


13.  Salmon. 

5  pieces  =  100  lbs.  of  cloth;  dye  vessel;  water  usual 

quantity, 

2  pints  protochloride  of  tin,  120°  Twaddle, 
40Z.  fiavine, 

6  oz.  cochineal, 

4  lbs.  bitartrate  of  potash. 

Enter  at  boil,  and  work  for  40  minutes.  Wash. 

14.  Scarlet  {Cochhieal). 

5  pieces  =  100  lbs.  of  cloth,  say  wool, 
100  gallons  boihng  water, 

10  lbs.  bitartrate  of  potash,  and 

6  pints  protochloride  of  tin  at  120°  Twaddle,  Work 
for  30  minutes,  then  wind  on  winch,  and  add  to 
the  same  bath  . , ' ;/ 

15  lbs.  cochineal, 

14  ozs.  fustic.  Enter  the  goods  again,  and  work  for 
15  minutes  at  180°  Fahr.  {82°  C),  then  raise  the 
bath  to  boiling,  and  work  at  boil  for  i  hour. 
Wash  and  afterwards  dry. 

15.  Scarlet. 

75  lbs.  cloth  or  yarn, 

1 1  lbs.  eosine  dissolved  in  the  bath,  say  at  120°  Eahr. 
(49°  C),  add 

3  gills  sulphuric  acid  at  170°  Twaddle.    Enter  the 

goods,  say  at  140°  to  145°  Fahr.  {6o°-6^°  C),  and 
gradually  bring  to  boil  in  from  15  to  20  minutes, 
and  take  out. 

16.  Crimson. 

5  pieces  =100  lbs.  cloth;   dye  vessel;  water  usual 

quantity, 

4  pints  protochloride  of  tin  120°  Twaddle, 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


lo  lbs.  bitartrate  of  potash, 

30  lbs.  cochineal  (ammoniacal).    No.  17  {below). 
Work  first  for  30  minutes  in  the  tin  and  bitartrate  of 

potash,  before  adding  the  ammoniacal  cochineal ; 

then  after  that  is  added,  work  for  an  hour  at  boil ; 

wash. 

7.  Ammoniacal  Cochineal. 

18  lbs.  cochineal, 
14  lbs.  liquid  ammonia, 
2  gallons  of  water, 
Steep  for  1 2  hours  in  a  closed  vessel ;  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use. 

8.  Yellow. 

80  lbs.  cloth  or  yarn, 
8  lbs.  Glauber  salts, 

1  gill  sulphuric  acid,  170°  Twaddle, 
5  oz.  aniline  yellow. 

Usual  manipulation. 

9.  Yellow.  {Bark). 
80  lbs.  cloth  or  yarn, 

5 1  lbs.  ground  bark, 
4 J  lbs.  bitartrate  of  potash, 
4^  quarts  protochloride  of  tin,  at  120°  Twaddle. 
Enter  at  140°  Fahr.  (60°  C),  and  boil  35  minutes. 

o.  Yellow. 

5  pieces  =100  lbs.  cloth;  dye  vessel;  water  usual 
quantity, 

2  pints  protochloride  of  tin,  at  120°  Twaddle, 
12  lbs.  flavine, 

5  lbs.  oxalic  acid. 
Enter  at  200°  Fahr.  (93*3°  C),  and  work  quickly  for 
2  hours ;  wash. 


CHAPTER  III. 


CALICO  PRINTING. 

This  branch  of  dyeing  consists  in  topically  printing  upon 
textile  fabrics,  such  as  cotton,  linen,  woollen,  silk  and  mixed 
goods,  figures  and  designs  mostly  in  two  or  more  colours? 
upon  a  white  or  coloured  ground. 

It  is  believed  that  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who,  according 
to  Pliny,  practised  the  art  of  calico-printing  with  con- 
siderable success,  acquired  their  knowledge  from  India, 
which  country  formerly  enjoyed  a  great  renown  for  the 
manufacture  of  its  cotton  cloth,  and  its  printed  calicoes.* 

The  Dutch  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  who 
attempted  to  introduce  the  art  of  calico-printing,  as  practised 
in  India,  into  Europe  ;  at  what  period  is  uncertain.  It  was 
possibly  from  Holland  that  the  art  reached  Germany,  for 
we  find  that,  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Augsburg  was  famous  for  the  excellence  of  its  linen  and 
cotton  fabrics.  Dr.  Ure  states  that  calico-printing  was  probably 
introduced  into  England  by  some  Flemish  emigrants  about 
the  year  1676.  Shortly  after  its  introduction,  several  print- 
ing works  were  set  up  in  this  country,  with  the  object  of 
supplying  the  London  shops  with  chintzes,  the  importation 
of  which  had  been  prohibited  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1600. 
This  introduction  of  calico  goods,  whether  of  native  or  Indian 


*  The  word  calico  is  derived  from  Calicut,  a  tov/n  in  India  where 
these  industries  were  carried  on. 


62 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


origin,  met  with  the  most  imquahfied  opposition  from  the 
silk  and  woollen  weavers,  who  in  1680  attacked  the  India 
House,  for  having  been  instrumental  in  shipping  some 
Malabar  chintzes.  Intimidated  by  the  Spitalfield  w^eavers, 
the  Government  in  that  year  not  only  excluded  from  the 
English  markets  the  beautiful  printed  cotton  fabrics  of 
Calicut,  but  passed  a  law  by  which  the  wea-\dng  of  all 
printed  calicoes  whatsoever,  whether  of  foreign  or  domestic 
origin,  was  interdicted,  and  it  was  only  till  after  a  lapse 
of  140  years,  that  printed  calico  goods  were  allowed  to  enter 
into  equitable  competition  wdth  other  fabrics. 

In  1738,  calico-printing  was  introduced  into  Scotland,  and 
in  1764  into  Lancashire,  the  first  Lancashire  calico-printer 
being  Mr.  Clayton,  who  erected  works  at  Bembridge,  near 
Preston.  The  process  was  mostly  performed  by  means  of 
engraved  blocks  applied  to  the  cloth  by  hand,  till  the  year 
1785,  when  the  cylinder  printing  machine,  now  almost  uni- 
versally adopted,  was  invented  by  a  Scotchman  of  the  name 
of  Bell. 

In  1746,  the  first  calico  works  in  Mulhausen  were  estab- 
lished by  KoECHLiN,  whose  descendants  are  the  representa- 
tives of  the  old  house  which  has  rendered  the  printed 
calicoes  of  that  city  so  renowned. 

The  Chinese  practised  the  art  many  centuries  before  it  was 
known  in  Europe. 

The  process  of  cahco-printing  is  performed  either  by  means 
of  wooden  stamping  blocks,  on  which  the  patterns  are  cut 
in  relief  ;  but  more  frequently  by  the  aid  of  engraved  copper 
cylinders.  In  the  former  case  the  w^ork  is  performed  by 
hand ;  in  the  latter  by  machinery.   The  blocks*  are  of  pear- 


*  When  a  pattern  is  to  be  several  times  reproduced  on  the  block, 
as  many  castings  of  it  as  are  required,  are  taken  in  tj'pe  metal,  and 
afterwards  arranged  and  nailed  to  a  plain  block  of  wood. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


63 


tree,  box,  fir  or  sycamore  wood,  with  sometimes  a  piece  of 
copper  wire,  forming  tlie  design,  let  into  them.  By  means  of 
sharp  pins  let  into  the  corners  of  the  block,  the  printer  can 
place  it  in  its  exact  position  on  the  fabric.  The  printer  dipping 
the  raised  part  of  the  block  into  the  mordant,  which  stands 
near  him  (for  every  different  colour  he  requires  a  different 
mordant),  stamps  it  sharply  on  to  the  fabric,  taking  care  in 
so  doing  to  press  it  evenly  and  equally  on  to  the  cloth, 
stretched  on  a  flat  table  covered  with  a  blanket.* 

A  method  of  block-printing  by  machinery  was  invented 
by  Perrot,  of  Rouen,  in  1833.  The  "  Perrotine,"  as  the 
apparatus  by  which  this  process  is  carried  out,  is  called,  con- 
sists of  three  blocks  either  of  wood  or  fusible  metal,  on  the 
faces  of  which  are  the  patterns  or  designs  in  relief.  These 
blocks  are  fixed  at  rigjit  angles  to  each  other,  in  a  powerful 
iron  frame,  and  in  close  proximity  to  a  revolving  iron  prism 
covered  with  cloth.  When  the  fabric,  which  is  drawn  through 
the  apparatus  by  a  winding  cylinder,  passes  between  the 
iron  prism  and  the  engraved  blocks,  these  latter  are  pressed 
against  it  by  means  of  springs,  and  print  the  design  upon  it 
in  succession.  After  each  impression  fresh  mordant  is  applied 
to  every  block  from  a  woollen  pad,  which  is  smeared  over 
with  the  paste  by  means  of  a  mechanical  brush.  The  Per- 
rotine is  employed  in  the  French  and  Belgian  factories, 
but  not  in  the  English,  and  effects  a  great  saving  of 
time  and  labour  over  hand-block  printing;  what  required 
twenty  men  and  twenty  children  by  this  latter  method, 
being  accomplished  by  the  Perrotine  by  one  man  and  two 
children. 

In  certain  cases,  such  as  in  printing  woollen  and  mousseline- 


*  Block-pi'inting  is  also  employed  for  introducing  colours  into  a 
fabric  after  it  has  been  subjected  to  cylinder-printing  and  dyed. 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Fig 


cle-laine  goods,  block  work  has  been  very  generally  super- 
seded by  cylinder  printing.  By  the  latter  method  the 
mordant  is  applied  to  the  cloth  by  means  of  copper  cyhnders, 
whereon  the  design  or  pattern  is  engraved.  These  cylinders 
are  set  in  a  strong  iron  framework,  and  form  part  of  a 
large  apparatus  essentially  consisting,  besides  the  cylinders, 
of  an  iron  drum  and  a  colour  cylinder.  The  iron  drum  is 
encased  in  woollen  cloth  or  felt.  The  annexed  drawing, 
which  represents  a  section  of  the  ma- 
chine, will  explain  the  manner  in 
which  it  works,  b  is  an  iron  drum 
turning  on  sujoports  fixed  in  the  end 
framework  of  the  machine,  a  the  en- 
graved cylinder,  and  c  the  colour  or 
mordant  cylinder  covered  with  woollen 
cloth,  c  dips  into  a  trough,  D  d,  filled 
with  the  mordant,  d  is  the  fabric 
to  be  printed,  a  a  is  an  endless  web 
or  blanket  passing  around  b.  The  en- 
graved cylinder  A  is  mounted  on  an  axis 
or  iron  mandrel  turned  by  steam  or  water  power.  Being 
pressed  against  the  surface  of  the  drum  b,  by  means  of 
weights  or  screws,  in  revolving,  a  imparts  a  rotary  move- 
ment to  B,  which  carrying  the  fabric  d  with  it  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrows,  brings  it  into  contact  with  the  engraved 
cylinder,  and  in  so  doing  causes  the  pattern  or  design  to  be 
printed  on  it.  As  it  revolves,  a  imparts  a  similar  movement 
to  the  mordant  cylinder  c,  and  at  the  same  time  robs  this 
of  the  mordant  which  it  has  taken  up  from  the  trough  D  D. 
Any  excess  of  mordant  or  colour  beyond  that  required  to 
fill  up  the  engraved  lines  is  scraped  off  from  the  face  of  the 
cylinder  a  before  this  reaches  the  fabric  by  5,  a  sharp  metal 
instrument,  called  the  "  colour  doctor opposite  which  is 
a  similar  contrivance  c,  for  removing  any  loose  threads  from 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


65 


the  roller,  called  the  "  lint  doctor."  When  more  than  one 
colour  has  to  be  prmted,  additional  cylinders,  mordant  rollers, 
colour  boxes,  &c.,  are  employed.  Some  apparatus  are  made  to 
print  fabrics  in  as  many  as  twenty-four  different  colours. 


The  above  engraving  represents  an  end  elevation  of  a 
four  colour  calico-printing  machine.  A  is  the  framework 
of  cast-iron  fixed  to  a  corresponding  framework  by  strong 
bolts  B.  c  is  the  drum,  the  diameter  of  which  varies  with 
the  fabric  to  be  printed ;  d  the  engraved  cylinders.  E  are 
mandrels  made  of  wrought-iron  on  which  the  engraved 
cylinders  are  forced  by  a  screw-press.  The  cylinders  D  are 
made  with  projecting  pieces  inside,  extending  all  the  width 
of  the  roller,  an  arrangement  which  causes  it  to  revolve 
with  the  mandrel,Avithout  slipping.  The  drum,  c,  rests  with 
its  gudgeons  on  bearings  which  can  be  shifted  up  and  down 
in  slots  of  the  side  cheeks  A.    These  bearings  are  suspended 

F 


66 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


from  massive  screws  f,  which  turn  in  brass  nuts  fastened 
to  the  framework  A.  By  means  of  these  screws  the  upward 
pressure  of  the  two  lowest  engraved  cyhnders  is  counter- 
acted. G  G  are  shding  pieces,  which  move  in  arms  of  the 
framework  a  by  means  of  the  screws  n  h,  and  to  them  are 
attached  the  bearings  of  the  mandrels,  the  colour-boxes  and 
the  "  doctors."  By  means  of  the  screM^s  ii  and  i,  and  the 
levers  k,  additional  pressure  is  given  to  the  cylinders  d,  the 
top  cylinders  D  are  pressed  against  the  drum  by  the 
levers  k,  which  are  attached  to  the  arms  of  the  framework. 
The  two  bottom  cylinders  d  are  pressed  against  c  by  the 
levers  k  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  upper  ones,  a  is  the 
cloth  to  be  printed. 

In  the  above  machine,  one  engraved  cylinder  is  capable  of 
printing  one  colour  only.  A  pattern  or  design,  therefore, 
in  which  there  are  several  colours,  will  require  a  separate 
cylinder  for  each;  all  the  cylinders  working  in  one  machine. 
When  this  is  the  case,  the  pattern  is  cut  up  into  as  many 
parts  as  there  are  colours,  each  part  being  engraved  upon  a 
distinct  cyhnder.  By  arranging  the  respective  cylinders  so 
that  each  will  print  the  colour  in  its  right  position,  the 
vari-coloured  pattern  will  be  produced  in  its  integrity.  Upon 
the  proper  and  accurate  adjustment  of  the  cylinders,  and 
the  consequent  exact  fitting  in  of  the  mordants  or  colovirs 
with  each  other,  the  distinctness  of  the  design  depends. 
The  material  surrounding  the  drum  generally  consists  of  a 
particular  kind  of  strong,  coarse  woollen  cloth,  known  as 
lapping.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  thick.  The  blanket  is  a 
woollen  web  with  the  ends  sewn  together.  It  is  about  40 
yards  in  length  and  should  be  of  equal  thickness  through- 
out, as  well  as  of  uniform  texture  and  elasticity.  A  blanket 
of  good  quality  will  print  10,000  pieces;  whenever  saturated 
with  mordant  it  is  w^ashed,  and  is  then  employed  for  cover- 
ing the  t;ible  used  in  block-printing.    Blankets  made  of 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


67 


cotton,  covered  with  India-rubber  and  of  vulcanized*  India 
rubber  are  sometimes  employed.  They  are  said  to  act  satis- 
factorily, and  to  be  more  economical  than  the  woollen  ones, 
since  they  last  longer,  in  addition  to  which  they  can  be 
more  easily  washed.  Spite  of  these  advantages,  how^ever, 
the  woollen  blanket  is  largely  used.  Processes  for  dispen- 
sing with  blankets  have,  from  time  to  time,  been  introduced, 
but  they  have  not  met  with  much  favour.  The  "  colour 
doctor,"  or  sharp  instrument  used  to  scrape  the  super- 
fluous mordant  from  the  engraved  cylinder  as  it  revolves,  is 
generally  made  of  steel.  It  must  be  so  tempered  as  to  be 
capable  of  receiving  a  fine  edge,  but  not  so  hard  as  to  resist 
being  cut  with  a  file.  For  mordants  which  act  rapidly  on 
steel,  brass  and  nickel  "  doctors"  are  sometimes  employed  ; 
neither  of  these  metals,  however,  can  be  as  accurately 
tempered  as  steel,  besides  which,  being  softer,  "doctors"  made 
of  them  are  more  quickly  worn  out,  and  are  more  difficult 
to  clean.  But  all  colours  containing  salts  of  copper,  neces- 
sitate the  use  of  brass,  composition,  or  nickel  "doctors."  For 
if  steel  be  used,  then  the  nitrate,  acetate,  or  sulphate  of 
copper  in  the  colour,  immediately  deposits  its  oxide  in 
irregular  layers  on  the  sharpened  edge  of  the  doctor,  and 
thereby  permits  colour  to  pass  under  it  that  should  be 
kept  back. 


*  An  iudia-rubber  blanket,  the  invention  of  Mr.  James  Chadwick, 
of  the  firm  of  Chadwick  &  Co.,  of  Manchester,  is  ia  occasional  use. 
This  blanket,  which  was  pateuted  by  the  inventor,  consists  of  a  thin 
woollen  fabric  known  as  camlet  cloth,  two  folJs  or  plies  being  held 
together  by  a  thin  layer  of  india-rubber,  which  is  afterwards  vulcan- 
ized. Owing  to  its  thinaess,  and  to  its  being  made  of  wool,  it  com^ 
bines  pliability  with  durabifity,  and  being  waterproof,  after  every 
passage  through  the  printing  machine,  it  is  washed  and  dried  by 
means  of  an  apparatus  situated  behind  the  machine.  By  this  arrange 
ment  a  clean  surface  is  secured  after  every  registration.  Mr.  Chad- 
wick's  patent  has  now  expired. 

F  2 


68 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Previous  to  either  printing  or  dyeing  silk,  wool,  cotton,  or 
linen,  each  of  these  fibres  has  to  pass  through  several  cleans- 
ing processes,  in  order  to  secure  the  desired  results. 

Silk  must  be  boiled  for  some  hours  in  soap  and  water, 
until  the  gum  natural  to  the  silk,  as  it  comes  from  the  cocoon, 
and  other  matters  used  in  its  manufacture,  are  entirely 
removed.  It  is  afterwards  suspended  in  a  sulphur  chamber 
filled  with  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  for  eight  to  twelve  hours. 
This  gives  a  whiteness  to  the  fibre.  If,  however,  the  goods 
are  for  dyeing,  and  the  whiteness  is  not  material,  the  sul- 
phuring is  dispensed  with.  After  the  soaping  or  sulphuring, 
the  goods  are  well  washed  and  dried,  when  they  are  ready 
for  dyeing  or  printing. 

Woollen  Goods,  before  being  printed  or  dyed,  are  gener- 
ally what  is  called  "  crabbed,"  in  either  weak  ammonia  or 
weak  soda  lye.  The  finer  qualities  or  styles  are  crabbed  in 
soap  and  water;  whilst  for  common  colours  putrid  urine,  vary- 
ing in  temperature  from  140°  Fahr.  (60°  C.)  to  boiling,  is  used. 
If  intended  for  styles  where  a  pure  white  is  required,  the 
goods  are  also  sulphured  previous  to  washing  and  drying, 
for  printing  or  dyeing.  The  sulphuring  is  omitted  in 
those  cases  in  which  the  colours  would  be  injured.  The 
all  important  object  is  to  eftect  the  removal  of  yolk  and 
oil. 

Before  printing  or  dyeing  Cotton  or  Calico,  the  goods 
are  dressed  or  singed  to  remove  the  fibrous  down  from  the 
surface.  The  singeing  is  performed  by  passing  them  per- 
fectly straight  and  even  over  red-hot  copper  or  iron  plates, 
at  the  rate  of  about  1 00  yards  per  minute ;  or  by  means  of 
Tulpin's  singeing  machine,  which  causes  the  cotton  or  calico 
to  be  moved  along  the  lateral  part  of  a  coal-gas  flame.  The 
flame  is  kept  steady  by  means  of  a  ventilator,  which  draws 
ofl'the  gases  arising  from  combustion.  The  flame  being  mixed 
with  air,  the  same  as  in  the  Bunsen  lamp,  perfect  com- 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


69 


bustion  is  eftected,  consequently  no  smoke  is  given  off,  and 
the  cloth  is  neither  discoloured  nor  blackened. 

The  goods  are  next  passed  through  a  washing-machine, 
and  then  through  milk  of  lime  into  a  vessel  termed  a  hier, 
where  they  are  boiled  from  five  to  eight  or  twelve  hours  in 
the  usual  quantity  of  water,  heated  by  high  or  low  pressure 
steam ;  steam  of  low  pressure  being  preferable,  since  the 
boiling  is  then  more  effective  and  occupies  less  time.  The 
goods  are  afterwards  well  washed  and  steeped  for  some  hours 
in  hydrochloric  acid  at  1°  to  2°  Twaddle,  after  which  they  are 
again  well  washed  and  boiled  in  the  kier  in  soda  ash,  or  car- 
bonate of  soda,  or  resinate  of  soda,  the  proportions  being, 
say,  140  lbs.  to  two  tons  weight  of  dry  cloth.  In  this  they  are 
boiled  from  six,  eight,  to  twelve  hours,  afterwards  washed 
and  steeped  for  three  or  four  hours  in  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime  at  |°  to  i""  Twaddle.  They  are  again  washed,  then 
steeped  in  hydrochloric  acid  at  1°  Twaddle  for  two  hours, 
rewashed,  squeezed  and  dried. 

Linen,  before  being  printed  or  dyed,  is  treated  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  calico,  but  is  more  frequently  boiled  in  ash 
lye  than  in  lime. 

The  pieces  intended  to  be  printed  on  by  the  cylinder 
machine,  stitched  together  by  machinery,  or  sometimes 
gummed,  mostly  in  lots  of  forty,  are  wound  by  means  of 
an  apparatus  called  a  candroy  on  to  a  wooden  roller,  which 
is  fixed  at  the  back  of  the  printing-machine. 

During  the  time  it  is  being  unwound  from  this  {^see 
a  and  h,  fig,  3,  page  65),  the  fabric  is  made  to  pass  over 
wooden  rollers,  and  is  additionally  stretched  tightly  by 
means  of  a  pulley  attached  to  the  axis  of  the  roller, 
so  that  when  it  arrives  at  the  drum  it  is  in  a  smooth 
and  uncreased  condition,  and  is  kept  in  position  by  a 
boy  placed  behind  the  machine.  This  boy  also  removes 
any  loose  fibre  from  the  cloth.    The  printer  stands  in  front 


70 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


of  the  apparatus,  and  adjusts  his  pattern  on  a  piece  of  coarse 
cloth,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  nearest  piece.  This  man 
also  has  the  colour  boxes  under  his  supervision.  After  forty- 
pieces  have  been  worked  off  the  machine  is  stopped,  and 
previous  to  another  batch  being  passed  through  it,  the 
"  doctors"  are  examined,  and,  if  needful,  sharpened  by  means 
of  a  file. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  pieces  upon  which  the  mordant 
has  been  printed  should  be  immediately  dried.  This  is  done 
by  passing  them  from  the  printing  rollers,  over  steam  chests 
and  cylinders.  If  the  style  is  for  steam  or  topical  prints, 
the  goods  are  passed  on  to  the  steaming  box  described  further 
on.  If  for  madder  styles,  the  goods  must  be  passed  through 
the  ageing  chambers,  where  the  mordants  undergo  a  chemical 
decomposition  which  converts  them  into  a  state  the  most 
favourable  for  the  subsequent  operations. 

For  instance,  the  mordants  generally  employed  in  this 
style  of  printing  are  the  acetates  and  pyrolignites  of  iron,  used 
either  separately,  or  in  combination  Avitli  the  salts  of 
alumina,*  and  the  salts  of  copper  and  iron  used  with  catechu, 
and  these  salts  not  possessing  the  essential  quality  of  insolu- 
bility, would  fail  to  attach  themselves  either  to  the  dye  or  to 
the  cloth.  When,  however,  the  calico  printed  with  them  is 
exposed  to  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  ageing-room,  the 
acetic  or  pyroligneous  acid  is  in  great  part  driven  off,  and 
owing  to  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  either  an  insoluble  oxide 
or  hydrated  peroxide,  or  a  subsalt,  is  left  behind,  confined  to 
the  space  on  whicli  the  pattern  was  impressed,  which,  after 
being  subjected  to  the  treatment  described  further  on,  enters 
into  insoluble  union  both  with  the  cloth  and  subsequently  with 
the  tinctorial  body.    Goods  were  formerly  aged  by  hanging 


Alumina  salts  alone  require  no  ageing  previous  to  tlieir  being 
dunged. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


71 


them  in  folds  from  the  roof  of  a  very  spacious  airy  building, 
kept  at  a  mean  summer  temperature,  and  by  the  introduction 
of  aqueous  vapour  into  the  apartment.  The  hygroscopic 
condition  was  sometimes  ensured  by  mixing  the  mordants 
with  a  deliquescent  salt. 

In  the  process  of  ageing,  as  now  carried  out,  the  exposure 
of  the  mordanted  cloth  by  hanging  in  folds  is  got  rid  of 
altogether.  After  it  has  been  mordanted,  it  is  passed 
through  what  is  called  the  "  ageing  machine."  The  ageing 
machine  was  originally  introduced  by  Mr.  Thom,  of  May- 
field  Print  Works.  Shortly  after,  however,  Mr.  W.  Crum, 
of  Tliornlie  Bank,  by  increasing  its  size,  and  giving  it  a  more 
practical  form,  soon  caused  it  to  be  extensively  adopted,  and 
it  is  now  in  almost  universal  use.  The  ageing  machine  con- 
sists of  a  chamber  about  36  feet  long,  20  feet  high,  and  13  feet 
wide.  It  is  fitted  at  top  and  bottom  with  rollers,  over  which 
the  mordanted  cloth  is  made  to  pass  at  the  rate  of  60  to  80 
yards  a  minute.  The  chamber,  which  is  made  of  wood,  and 
is  air-tight,  is  fitted  with  steam  pipes  and  jets,  which  suppl}" 
it  with  the  necessary  heat  and  moisture.  It  also  contains  a 
Daniell's  hygrometer,  which,  when  the  chamber  is  in 
use,  should  indicate  a  temperature  of  75°  to  80°  Fahr. 
(.?3'28°— 26*6°  C),  and  70°  to  76°  of  moisture.  Ageing 
machines  are  manufactured  by  Mather  &  Platt. 

After  the  mordanted  goods  have  passed  through  the 
ageing  chamber,  they  are  folded  in  bundles  of  convenient 
size,  and  placed  in  a  room,  heated  to  about  the  same  tem- 
perature, till  next  morning,  when  they  are  ready  for  dunging. 
But  the  tissue  is  not  yet  in  a  fit  condition  to  enter  the 
dye-beck,  since,  when  it  leaves  the  ageing  house,  there  is 
always  adhering  to  its  printed  portions  a  sensible  quantity 
of  superfluous  and  unoxidized  mordant,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  undecomposed  acetate  or  pyrolignite  of  iron  or  alumina, 
as  the  case  may  be.    If  these  were  allowed  to  remain,  they 


72 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Avould  not  only  cause  a  waste  of  dye-stuff,  but,  in  combina- 
tion with  this,  would  spread  over  the  fabric  and  impregnate 
w^ith  colour  those  parts  intended  to  be  kept  white.  In 
addition  to  the  excess  of  mordant,  the  substances  with 
which  it  had  been  thickened  must  also  be  got  rid  of. 

Simple  immersion  of  the  fabric  in  warm  water,  and  sub- 
sequent rinsing  in  cold,  would  remove  these ;  but  such  a 
course  of  treatment  would  be  inapplicable  to  the  superfluous 
mordant,  inasmuch  as  this  would  dissolve  in  the  water, 
wdiich  would  then  colour  the  cloth,  and  thus,  more  or  less, 
obscure  the  design  on  it. 

Formerly  the  superfluous  mordant  was  got  rid  of  by 
passing  the  aged  goods  through  a  bath  of  cow-dung ;  whence 
this  particular  stage  of  the  dyeing  operation  derived  its 
present  name  of  "  dunging  called  by  the  French  printers 
housage.  Camille  Kcechlin,  a  French  authority,  ascribed  the 
efficiency  of  the  dung  to  the  presence  of  an  albuminous  con- 
stituent, which,  he  believed,  combined  with  the  alumina  and 
iron  of  the  acetates  of  these  bases  dissolved  by  the  hot  water 
of  the  bath,  and  formed  with  them  insoluble  precipitates, 
which  fell  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  It  is,  however,  more 
probable  that  the  efficiency  of  the  dung  was  due  to  its 
containing  certain  salts,  such  as  phosphates  and  silicates,  the 
acid  radicles  of  which,  seizing  the  bases  of  the  free  mordant, 
precipitated  them  in  the  form  of  insoluble  salts,  which  were 
incapable  of  combining  either  with  the  fibre  or  the  colour. 

This  latter  view  receives  strong  support  from  the  fact  that 
similar  salts  are  now  almost  universally  used  as  dung- 
substitutes.  Those  in  use  are  :  i.  The  double  j^hosphate  of 
soda  and  lime;  2,  arseniate  of  soda;  3,  arsenite  of  soda; 
4,  silicate  of  soda;  5,  silicate  of  lime.  The  selection  of 
these  substances  depends  upon  the  23articular  style  for  which 
they  are  required.  Phosphate  of  soda  and  lime  was  first 
patented  by  Macquer  ;  silicate  of  soda,  by  Schlieper  ;  and 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


73 


silicate  of  lime,  by  Higgin,  as  being  an  improvement  upon 
silicate  of  soda,  the  alkalinity  of  which  was  sometimes 
objectionable. 

On  the  Continent,  bran,  which  is  rich  in  phosphates,  is 
used  as  a  dung  substitute.  Deeper  and  brighter  colours 
result  from  the  employment  of  the  dung  substitutes  than 
from  the  dung  itself ;  in  addition  to  which  the  white  parts 
are  left  clearer,  since  the  dung  occasionally  imparted  a 
greenish  stain  to  these.  The  varying  constitution  of  the 
dung,  as  giving  rise  to  uncertain  effects,  also  constitutes  an 
important  drawback.  Lastly,  a  great  saving  of  labour  and 
time  is  gained  when  the  salts  are  employed.*  The  dung- 
bath  is  a  large  trough  filled  with  weak  solutions  of  the 
arseniate  or  silicate  of  soda,  or  some  other  salt  used  as  a 
dung  substitute.  In  the  trough  are  fixed  tw^o  rows,  about 
twenty  in  a  row,  of  rollers,  one  row  at  the  top,  the  other  at 
the  bottom,  over  and  under  which  the  mordanted  cloth, 
sewn  together  by  the  ends,  and  extended  to  its  full  width, 
and  free  from  folds,  is  drawn  as  expeditiously  as  possible, 
the  bath  being  maintained  at  a  temperature  at  from  i6o°  to 
i8o^  Fahr.  (7i°-82"2°  C).  It  is  important  that  the  pieces 
should  be  made  to  pass  thi-ough  the  fly-dung  bath  at  such  a 
rate  of  speed  as  not  to  remain  in  it  more  than  a  minute 
or  a  minute  and-a-half ,  and  also  that  the  bath  should,  from 
time  to  time,  have  strong  liquor  added  to  it,  so  as  to  keep 
it  up  to  the  required  strength  during  the  time  the  pieces 
are  being  carried  through  it. 

*  "  Experience  proves  that  iu  the  case  of  the  best  dung  sulDstitiites, 
a  final  turn  in  cow- dung  before  dyeing  is  advantageous,  it  being 
better  for  the  mordanted  oxide  that  it  should  go  into  the  bath  iu  a 
partially  saturated  state  than  in  a  state  of  the  highest  activity.  In  a 
majority  of  cases  the  colours  will  be  more  solid,  brighter  and  faster 
wheu  the  combination  between  the  mordant  and  colouring  matter  is 
slow  and  gradual  than  when  it  is  rapid." — Practical  Handhooh  of 
Dycltig  and  Calico-printing,  by  W.  Crookes,  F.E,.S. 


74 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


After  they  leave  the  ti-oiigh,  the  goods  are  thoroughly 
rinsed,  and  then  drawn  spirally  through  a  vessel  resembling 
a  dye-beck,  filled  with  a  very  weak  dunging  solution  heated 
to  140°  Fahr.  (60°  C).  After  this  second  dunging,  termed 
cleansing,  and  which  is  known  in  Erench  as  degommage,  the 
principal  use  of  which  is  to  remove  the  substances  used  to 
thicken  the  mordant,  the  goods  being  well  washed  in  a 
machine  made  for  the  purpose,  are  in  a  condition  to  be 
dyed,*  In  the  dyeing  of  calico  printed  goods,  the  process  is 
performed  in  oblong  or  wooden  vessels  called  dye-becks. 

These  becks  are  usually  divided  lengthwise  by  a  perforated 
diaphragm,  under  which  runs  a  perforated  pipe  for  the 
admission  of  steam.  Above  the  dye-beck  is  a  winch  or  reel 
connected  with  a  driving  shaft.  The  necessary  quantity  of 
water  having  been  run  into  the  beck,  the  mordanted,  aged 
and  dunged  pieces  are  laid  in  a  vow,  in  seven  or  eight  lengths 
of  two  each,  across  the  beck,  the  ends  of  each  being  tied 
together  so  as  to  form  an  endless  web,  which  is  wound  round 
the  winch,  the  diaphragm  and  steam-pipe,  the  greater  part 
of  the  cloth  being  in  the  front  part  of  the  beck.  The  dye- 
decoction  or  solution  of  the  colouring  substance  being  then 
added,  the  driving  shaft  is  set  in  motion  and  the  steam 
gently  turned  on,  and  the  liquid  gradually  raised  to  the 
boiling  point,  the  pieces  being  in  succession  dragged  through 
the  dye-bath  all  the  time  the  winch  is  being  turned,  when 
tiie  tinctorial  substance  is  kept  equally  diffused  owing  to 
the  agitation  induced  by  the  moving  cloth.  Some  becks 
are  divided  into  compartments,  an  arrangement  which 
diminishes  the  chance  of  the  pieces  getting  too  much  mixed 
together,  and  the  better  ensures  their  taking  the  dye  more 


*  The  above  system  of  duuging  is  also  suited  for  the  artificial 
alazarine  dyes,  the  only  difference  being  that  when  these  colours  are 
employed,  the  second  dunging  is  to  be  repeated. 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


75 


equally.  "When  the  goods  have  been  sufficiently  long  in 
the  beck,  they  are  removed  and  thoroughly  washed  in  a 
washing-machine.*  After  madder  printed  goods  are  dyed, 
dunged,  and  washed,  they  have  further  to  be  brightened 
and  cleansed.  The  madder  colours,  as  they  come  from  the 
dye-beck,  are  dull,  whilst  the  whites  or  unmordanted  parts, 
even  after  being  thoroughly  washed,  are  tinted  with  the  red 
colouring  matter  of  the  madder.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary both  for  the  brightening  of  the  colours  and  the 
clearing  of  the  whites,  to  subject  the  goods  to  repeated 
soapings  at  temperatures  varying  from  140°  and  180°  Fahr. 
(60°— 82*2°  C).  The  soapings  are  performed  in  becks, 
which  are  of  similar  construction  to  dye-becks. 

In  order  to  obtain  bright  madder  reds,  scarlets,  and 
pinks,  it  is  further  necessary,  after  the  goods  have  been 
dyed  and  washed,  and  previous  to  their  being  soaped,  to  have 
them  dried,  and  afterwards  padded  through  an  emulsion  of 
oleine  (saponified  castor  oil),  consisting  of  i  part  of  uleine 
to  16  parts  of  water.  They  should  then  be  dried  and 
hung  in  a  steaming-box,  with  the  steam  at  a  pressure  of 
from  one  to  three  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  They  should 
next  be  treated  according  to  the  directions  already  given 
for  brightening  and  cleansing. 

Sometimes  when  bluer  pinks  are  required,  weak  tin  is 


*  This  operation — which  has  for  its  object  the  removal  of  the  super- 
fluous and  uncombined  dye — is  more  particularly  in  piece-dyeing — 
conducted  as  follows : — The  pieces  are  first  vigorously  agitated  in  a 
large  reservoir  of  water,  from  whence  they  pass  between  two  cylin- 
ders, being  subjected  in  doing  so  to  a  heavy  downpour  of  water ; 
from  the  cylinders  they  descend  into  a  smaller  reservoir  supplied 
with  water  from  a  wide  pipe,  and  finally  they  are  carried  through  a 
second  pair  of  cylinders,  being  exposed  during  their  passage  to  a 
pow^erful  fall  of  water.  Improved  washing-machines  are  supplied  by 
the  following  amongst  other  makers : — Mather  &  Pla.tt  ;  Furni- 
VAL  ;  and  Barlow. 


76 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


used  between  the  soapings.  Sometimes,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  necessary  purity  of  colour  in  the  ground,  or  the  whites, 
it  is  necessary  to  pass  the  goods  through  a  Aveak  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime.  After  calico  goods  are  printed,  they 
generally  require  to  be  subjected  to  the  process  of  '*  finish- 
ing," before  they  are  in  a  condition  to  be  delivered  to  the 
merchant  for  sale. 

To  the  outsider,  the  operation  of  finishing  may  seem  a 
matter  of  no  very  great  importance,  but  by  the  calico 
printer  it  is  regarded  in  a  very  different  light.  When 
making  his  purchases  of  printed  goods  from  the  manufac- 
turer, the  buyer  generally  requires  to  know  their  length, 
width,  weight,  ka.  Now,  before  the  goods  are  printed,  all 
foreign  matters  that  have  been  added  to  the  cotton,  for  the 
purposes  either  of  manufacture  or  gain,  must  be  removed. 

In  some  cases,  removal  of  these  extraneous  bodies  amounts 
to  a  loss  of  as  much  as  lo  per  cent.  Besides  this,  the  goods 
having  been  made  to  pass  through  so  many  operations, 
become  soft,  loose,  and  rough,  in  which  state  they  are  very 
unsuited  for  the  market.  To  remedy  this,  they  are  passed 
through  a  machine  called  a  "  mangle,"  a  vessel  charged  with 
starch  water  varying  in  consistence  according  to  the  natui'e 
of  the  finishing  required,  and  then  immediately  after  over 
drying  cylinders.  Finally,  they  are  passed  once  or  twice 
through  a  calender  to  give  them  the  necessary  smoothness. 
Owing  to  the  varied  requirements  of  the  different  markets, 
and  to  the  numberless  uses  to  which  printed  calicoes  are 
put,  there  is  considerable  diversity  in  the  manner  in  which 
finishing  is  carried  out.  Hence  w^e  have  "  embossing- 
finish,"  "  glazed  or  Swissed  finish,"    bath  finish,"  etc.  etc. 

MORDANTS. 

As  already  explained,  mordants  are  substances  employed, 
when  necessary,  by  the  dyer  and  calico-printer,  to  fix  his 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


77 


colours  to  the  fleece,  yarn,  or  tissue.  They  are  in  extensive 
use,  because,  with  the  exception  of  indigo,  safflower,  annatto, 
and  the  aniline  colours,  there  are  scarcely  any  tinctorial 
substances  the  essential  principles  of  which  can  be  fixed  to 
textile  fabrics  without  their  intervention. 

In  its  extended  meaning,  the  word  mordant"  signifies 
any  agent  that  accomplishes  this  fixation,  not  only  by  enter- 
ing into  insoluble  union  both  with  the  colouring  principle 
and  the  textile  fibre,  but  that  also  acts  as  an  intermediary 
without  itself  entering  into  combination.  The  salts  of 
alumina,  iron,  tin,  and  many  other  compounds  belong  to 
the  first  class  ;  whilst  as  illustrations  of  the  second  may  be 
taken  oxygen,  which  by  its  action  on  the  reduced  indigo  of 
the  blue  vat,  causes  the  adhesion  of  the  resulting  indigotin 
to  the  fabric ;  and  the  acid  employed  to  neutralize  the 
alkaline  lye  holding  in  solution  the  colouring  principles  of 
safilower  and  annatto,  which,  upon  withdrawal  of  the  alkali, 
are  precipitated  upon  the  cotton  yarn  or  cloth,  and  enter 
into  indissoluble  union  with  it. 

The  term  "  mordant,"  however,  is  generally  applied  to 
solid  bodies,  and  to  solutions  of  these. 

The  following  list  includes  most  of  the  mordants  in  use  : — 

Salts  of  :— 


Aluminium. 

Potassium. 

Antimony. 

Sodium. 

Arsenic. 

Tin. 

Chromium. 

Also  : — 

Copper. 

Albumen(from  egg  and  blood).* 

Iron. 

Certain  fatty  oils. 

Lead. 

Casein  (lactarine). 

Manganese. 

Gelatin. 

Mercury. 

Tannic  acid. 

*  Alliumen,  casein,  gluten,  and  other  coagulums,  which  were  at  one 


78 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


One  or  more  of  the  above  metals  form  salts  with  one  or 
more  of  the  following  acids  :  arsenic,  boracic,  hydrochloric, 
hyposiilphurous,*  nitric,  phosphoric  and  silicic.  The  oxides 
of  the  metallic  or  inorganic  compounds  in  the  above  list 
exhibit  a  much  stronger  affinity  for  the  fibre  and  the  colour- 
ing principle,  and  enter  into  a  correspondingly  more  intimate 
union  with  it  than  the  inorganic  substances. 

The  oil  mordants  first  used  in  Turkey-red  dyeing  are 
supposed  to  owe  their  efficacy  as  mordants  to  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  consequent  absorption  of  oxygen,  whereby  they 
become  converted  into  insoluble  bodies  capable  of  combining 
with  certain  colouring  matters  and  fixing  them  on  vegetable 
fibres.  The  action  of  bitartrate  of  potash  or  cream  of  tartar 
as  a  mordant  has  yet  to  be  defined. 

The  essential  conditions  of  a  mordant  are,  that  it  should  be 
in  a  soluble  state  when  applied  to  the  fabric,  and  should 
become  fixed  and  insoluble  when  combined  with  it.  Unless 
it  be  in  the  liquid  form  it  cannot  penetrate  and  thoroughly 
and  equally  impregnate  the  cloth,  and  if,  after  its  absorption, 
it  were  not  permanently  fixed,  it  would  be  washed  out  by 


time  largely  used  as  mordants  or  agglutinants  for  fixing  the  coal-tar 
colours,  have,  owing  to  inif)rovements  in  the  manufacture  of  these, 
been  supplanted  by  the  ordinary  metallic  mordants.  Albumen  and 
casein — more  particularly  albumen — are,  however,  very  extensively 
employed  in  fixing  to  textile  fabrics  insoluble  powders  and  pigments, 
such  as  ultramarine,  chrome  green,  vermilion,  chromate  of  lead,  &c. 
These  pigments  are  merely  fixed  mechanically  or  by  surface  adhesion, 
owing  to  the  coagulation,  mostly  by  means  of  heat,  of  the  albumen  or 
casein. 

*  Kopp  first  suggested  the  use  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  as  a  mor- 
dant. He  states  that  it  is  entirely  soluble  in  water,  and  that 
in  decomposing,  it  forms  no  product  that  is  destructive  of  the 
fibre.  It  is  also  cheap,  gives  rise  to  full-bodied  colours,  is  more 
rapidly  and  completelj^  fixed  than  alumina,  and  more  effectually  pre- 
vents fixation  of  iron.  Gum,  British  gum,  or  torrefied  starch,  may 
be  used  as  thickeners. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


79 


the  liquid  that  in  the  first  instance  had  been  used  as  its 
menstruum. 

Another  condition  is  that  it  should  possess  a  strong  attrac- 
tion for  the  colouring  matter,  and  for  the  cloth  also,  and 
form  with  them  a  compound  of  such  stability  as  to  be  irre- 
movable when  exposed  to  the  ordinary  agencies  of  friction, 
soap,  water,  light  and  air. 

The  affinity  of  the  mordant  for  both  fibre  and  colouring 
principle  should  be  nicely  adjusted  ;  for  if  the  attraction  it 
possesses  for  these  be  excessive,  the  resulting  dye  will  be 
deposited  in  an  uneven  and  spotty  manner ;  on  the  contrary, 
if  it  be  too  weak,  or  some  other  substance  is  present  which 
exercises  a  more  powerful  attraction,  the  dyed  goods  will  be 
poor,  and  thin  in  shade,  and  the  colour  will  probably  be 
fugitive. 

Again,  the  use  of  a  mordant  having  a  greater  affinity  for 
the  colouring  matter  than  for  the  cloth,  should  be  particu- 
larly avoided,  or  the  mordant  combining  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  tinctorial  substance,  and  forming  with  it  an 
insoluble  lake,  which  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  dye-pan,  will, 
of  course,  more  or  less  prevent  its  deposition  upon  the  fabric. 
Those  bodies,  the  components  of  which  are  held  together  by 
a  loose  affinity,  make  the  best  mordants. 

The  fixing  of  the  metallic  mordant  is  obtained  by  various 
methods,  sometimes  the  salt  is  converted  into  the  insoluble 
base  by  volatilization  of  its  acid.  Thus,  when  textile  goods 
have  been  mordanted  with  the  acetates  of  alumina  or  iron, 
and  are  afterwards  "  aged,"  the  acetic  acid  escapes,  leaving 
behind,  according  to  some  chemists,  an  insoluble  hydrated 
oxide  of  aluminium  or  iron,  according  to  others  a  basic  body 
attached  to  the  cloth.  When  pernitrate  of  iron  is  employed 
as  the  mordant,  the  acid,  which  is  only  feebly  combined  with 
the  base,  is  removed  by  means  of  dilution  v/ith  water,  whilst 
the  peroxide  of  iron  is  precipitated  upon  and  enters  into 


8o 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


union  with  the  fibre.  Again,  when  a  fabric  is  dipped  into 
a  bath  of  ahiminate  of  sodium,  and  afterwards  passed 
through  a  sohition  of  chloride  of  ammonium,  the  resulting 
insoluble  oxide  of  aluminium  is  deposited  upon  it ;  or  the 
same  thing  occurs  by  simple  exposure  of  the  fabric,  after 
its  removal  from  the  aluminate  of  sodium  solution,  to  the  air, 
when  the  atmospheric  carbonic  acid  combines  with  the  soda , 
and  leaves  the  alumina  combined  with  the  cloth.  Again, 
when  cotton  goods,  which  are  to  be  dyed  with  the  aniline 
colours,  are  first  mordanted  by  passing  through  a  solution 
of  silicate  of  sodium,  and  afterwards  through  a  dilute  acid^ 
the  liberated  silica  becomes  fixed  on  the  cotton. 

The  function  of  the  mordant  is  not  confined  to  the  fixa- 
tion of  the  colour  alone,  since  in  the  majority  of  cases  it 
increases  in  a  marked  degree,  the  brilliancy  and  depth  of 
shade  of  the  dyed  fabric.  Thus  alumina  very  greatly  in- 
creases the  intensity  of  the  colouring  principle  of  madder ; 
and  perchloride  of  tin,  when  added  to  the  cochineal  dye-beck, 
gives  rise  to  beautiful  scarlet  and  crimson  shades  that  would 
not  be  brought  out  by  water  alone.  It  must  not  be  omitted 
to  be  mentioned  also,  that  mordants  very  frequently  render 
the  colour  faster.  The  different  shades  of  colour  in  fabrics 
dyed  with  the  same  mordant,  depend  upon  the  degree  of 
concentration  of  the  mordant.  Madder,  with  a  strong  iron 
mordant,  gives  a  dark  purple,  with  a  weak  one  a  lilac.  With 
a  strong  alumina  mordant,  this  dye-stufi"  gives  a  deep  red, 
and  with  the  same  mordant  diluted,  a  pink  shade.  A  mix- 
ture of  the  acetates  of  alumina  and  iron,  according  to  its 
strength,  gives  rise  to  varying  shades  of  chocolate.  The 
same  mordant  gives  rise  to  different  colours  with  different 
dye  stuffs.  Alumina  which  with  madder  produces  pinks  and 
reds,  with  logwood  gives  rise  to  greyish  purples,  and  with  old 
fustic,  to  yellows. 

The  nature  of  the  fibre,  as  well  as  the  mechanical  condi- 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


8i 


tion  of  the  surface  of  the  fabric,  exercise  a  considerable 
influence  on  the  activity  or  otherwise  of  the  mordant. 

In  dyeing  woollen  fibres,  fast  colours  are  obtained  with 
tin  mordants  ;  whereas  this  latter  acts  very  feebly  when 
used  with  cotton  goods.  On  the  contrary,  iron  acts  as  a 
very  powerful  mordant  when  applied  to  cottons,  but  is  very 
difficult  of  application  to  woollen  goods. 

In  the  choice  of  mordants,  those  of  a  strongly  acid  or 
alkaline  nature  should  be  avoided,  since  they  corrode  the 
fibre,  and  by  thus  rendering  it  incapable  of  properly  absorb- 
ing the  dye,  give  rise  to  meagre,  impoverished,  flattened  and 
lustreless  colours.  Acid  mordants  are  best  adapted  for  wool 
and  worsted  goods ;  neutral  ones  for  silk ;  whilst  in  cotton 
dyeing  and  printing,  excess  of  free  acid  is  decidedly  objec- 
tionable. 

The  mordant  is  usually  applied  to  cotton  before  dyeing, 
and  to  wool  generally  along  with  the  colouring  matter,  and 
occasionally  after  it  has  been  dyed.  Several  mordants,  after 
a  time,  suffer  spontaneous  decomposition.  The  agents  which 
hasten  this  are  artificial  heat,  exposure  to  light,  and  some- 
times to  a  low  temperature. 

As  strong  mordants  are  particularly  prone  to  decomposi- 
tion, too  much  of  them  should  not  be  prepared  at  a  time. 

Mordants  that  do  not  alter  the  colour  of  the  fibre  are, 
when  practicable,  to  be  preferred. 

This  is  why  alumina,  tin  and  other  bases  destitute  of  colour 
mostly  make  the  best  mordants. 

The  mordants  used  in  dyeing  textile  fibres  of  a  uniform 
colour  throughout  are  in  the  form  of  liquids ;  whereas  those 
employed  in  calico-printing  are  made  into  pastes.  The  aim 
of  the  printer  being  to  impress  coloured  figures  upon  the 
fabric,  he  can  only  accomplish  this  by  confining  his  dyes 
within  certain  limits,  and  this  would  be  impossible  were  the 
mordant  in  a  fluid  state,  and  as  such  allowed  to  spread  over 

G 


82 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC, 


the  face  of  the  tissue.  Hence,  in  order  to  keep  it  attached 
to  those  parts  forming  the  pattern  or  design,  he  is  compelled 
to  have  it  in  an  inspissated  and  coherent  condition. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  thickening  agents, 
or,  as  they  are  termed,  "  thickeners"  : — 

Albumen.  Gum  tragacanth. 

Casein,  or  lactarine.  Molasses. 
Clay,  China.  Lead  sulphate. 

Clay,  pipe.  Potato  starch. 

Dextrin  in  its  different  Salep. 

forms  of  British  gum,        Shellac  dissolved  in 
calcined    starch  and  borax, 
leiocome.  Sugar. 
Glue.  Wheat-flour. 
Gluten.  starch. 
Glyceiiii.  Zinc  chloride. 

Gum  Senegal.  Zinc  nitrate. 

Of  these,  some  are  only  used  for  particular  styles  or 
colours,  whilst  China-clay,  chloride  of  zinc,  and  sulphate  of 
lead,  are  more  frequently  used  as  resists  or  reserves,  than  as 
thickeners.  The  above  substances  vaiy  greatly  in  thicken- 
ing power.  Thus  1 1  oz.  of  tragacanth  gum  are  equal  to 
20  oz.  of  starch,  22  oz.  of  flour,  and  8  lbs.  or  9  lbs.  of 
calcined  starch. 

Thicker  mordants  are  required  for  cylinder  than  for  block 
printing. 

Any  little  hard  particles  in  the  mordant  would  in- 
juriously affect  the  engraved  copper  cylinders.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  China-clay  and  pipe-clay,  previous  to  being 
used  in  cylinder  printing,  should  be  freed  from  all  coarse 
particles  by  sifting  and  elutriation.  These  two  substances 
enter  into  the  composition  of  resists.  Pipe-clay,  com- 
bined with  terrified  starch,  is  used  as  a  thickener  in  block 
printing.    Pipe-clay  is  also  often  employed  with  gum  as 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


83 


a  thickener,  whereby  the  quantity  of  gum  required  is  much 
lessened. 

Different  mordants  require  different  thickeners,  and  in 
combining  the  two,  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  admixture  of 
substances  which  decompose  each  other.  Thus  starch  is  ill 
iidapted  as  a  thickening  for  a  strongly  acid  mordant,  since 
the  acid  deprives  the  starch  of  its  consistency.  As  heat  assists 
the  reaction  that  brings  about  this  result,  by  converting  a 
portion  of  the  starch  into  glucose,  the  acid  or  acid  salt 
should  not  be  added  to  the  starch  until  this  is  cold.  Acid 
mordants,  however,  do  not  affect  British  gum  or  gum 
Senegal  in  the  same  manner. 

Some  mordants,  which  have  been  thickened  by  starch,  are 
liable  to  become  fluid  after  a  few  days,  and  are  therefore 
open  to  the  serious  objection  of  spreading  over  the  fabric 
during  printing.  The  French  printers  are  said  to  remedy  this 
by  adding  |  oz.  of  spirits  of  wine  to  every  quart  of  mordant. 

Mordants  that  are  used  in  the  production  of  red  and  pink 
colours  are  usually  thickened  with  starch.  When  starch  is 
used,  it  is  necessary  to  boil  the  thickened  mordant  containing 
it,  keeping  it,  at  the  same  time,  well  stirred  till  cold.  The 
mordant  so  prepared  must  not  be  used  hot.  For  iron 
mordants  starch  makes  a  better  thickener  than  British  gum. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that  starch  and  wheat 
flour,  and  all  their  derivatives,  such  as  dextrin,  British 
gum,  (kc,  are  reducing  agents,  and  thereby  prevent  oxidation 
of  the  colours.  Mordants  thickened  with  starch  give 
deeper  tints  than  gum.  The  natural  gums  should  not  be 
used  as  thickeners  for  mordants  containing  basic  or  sub- 
acetate  of  lead,  basic  alum,  solutions  of .  tin,  or  nitrate  of 
copper  or  iron,  since  all  these  substances  coagulate  the  gum. 
Starch  is  occasionally  adulterated  with  gypsum,  sulphate 
of  barium  and  chalk.  Mordants  containing  dextrin  are 
liable  to  spoil  sooner  than  when  made  with  gum. 

G  2 


84 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Whenever  its  use  is  practicable,  gum  is  preferable  to  starch 
as  a  thickener,  since  it  imparts  greater  transparency  to  the 
dye,  does  not  alter  nor  tarnish  the  colours,  nor  weaken  the 
mordant,  whilst  the  unfixed  portion  is  more  easily  removable 
by  washing  from  the  fibre.  But  against  these  advantages 
are  to  be  set  the  tendency  of  the  gum  to  dry  too  speedily, 
and  to  form  an  impermeable  coating  on  the  cloth,  which 
gives  rise  to  poor  and  feeble  tints. 

The  best  kind  of  gum  only  should  be  chosen  for  dyeing 
pink-reds  and  rose-reds.  Except  with  pipe  clay,  the  gums 
are  not  very  miscible  with  the  other  substances  iised  for 
thickening.  Solutions  of  the  natural  gums  quickly  become 
acid. 

Gum  Senegal,  is  chiefly  used  in  roller  printing.  Gums 
vary  in  the  degree  of  viscosity  they  impart  to  water, 
or,  in  other  words,  in  thickening  power.  The  usual  way  of 
determining  the  comparative  viscosity  of  two  or  more 
samples  of  a  gum,  is  to  make  a  solution  of  each,  under 
precisely  similar  conditions,  and  to  pour  the  solutions  one  at  a 
time  through  a  glass  funnel,  with  the  tube  drawn  out  to  a 
fine  point.  The  length  of  time  it  takes  each  solution  to  run 
through  the  funnel  is  then  carefully  noted,  and  the  results 
compared  ;  that  solution  of  course  being  the  strongest  which 
has  been  the  longest  in  passing  through  the  funnel.  The 
natural  and  artificial  gums  form  the  best  thickeners  for 
printing  purposes.  When  used  with  the  acetates  of  alumina 
and  iron,  they  give  paler  colours  than  torrified  starch.  A 
much  smaller  quantity  of  thickener  is  required  when  it  is 
employed  with  salts  that  have  a  coagulative  power.  Colours 
prepared  with  casein  are  liable  to  decompose.  Solutions  of 
albumen  also  decompose  very  quickly.  They  are  best 
preserved  by  adding  to  them  about  i  per  cent,  of  arsenite 
of  soda,  or  arsenious  acid.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  also  used  for 
the  same  purpose.    A  very  small  quantity  only  is  necessary. 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


85 


It  may  be  stated  that  the  larger  the  quantity  of  thickening 
used,  the  Hghter  will,  in  most  cases,  be  the  shade  of  colour ; 
and  that  the  most  lustrous  tints  are  obtained,  when,  by 
judicious  thickening,  the  mordant  is  kept  as  much  as  possible 
to  the  surface  of  the  cloth.  If  the  latter  precaution  be 
observed,  a  great  saving  of  dye  is  also  gained.  A  mordant 
may  be  quickly  rendered  thicker  by  the  addition  of  starch 
or  farina,  without  any  detriment  to  the  resulting  colour. 

A  special  apartment  is  reserved  for  the  preparation  and 
mixing  of  the  mordants*  and  their  thickenings.  The 
"  colour-room,"  as  it  is  called,  is  usually  a  large  well-venti- 
lated building,  with  a  range  of  colour  pans  placed  sometimes 
at  one  end,  and  sometimes  on  one  side  of  it.  The  annexed 
drawing  exhibits  a  series  of  mordant-pans  manufactured  by 
Storey,  of  Manchester : — 


Fig.  4. 


1 

3  Er 

r"  1" 

■  1 

^  J 

■  1 

 i 

□ 

4  i 

k  ? 

Of 

1 

3.  £ 

The  series  consists  of  eight  jacketted  copper  pans,  varying 
from  I  to  28  gallons  in  capacity.  The  pans  are  supported 
on  cast  iron  pillars,  and  are  so  arranged,  that  when  the 
mordant  requires  to  be  emptied  out,  they  are  turned  over  by 


*  In  many  works  on  dyeing  and  calico-prhitiug,  mordants  are  very 
frequently  spoken  of  as  "colours,"  a  looseness  of  phraseology  which 
is  occasionally  likely  to  lead  to  their  being  confounded  with  the  dye. 


86 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


means  of  a  brass  stuffing  box,  attached  to  each  pan,  and  to 
each  pillar.  By  means  of  the  copper  pipe  A,  steam  can  be 
admitted  down  the  pillars,  as  far  as  the  stuffing  boxes,  and 
thus  into  the  jacketted  space  surrounding  each  pillar;  d,  is 
a  condensing  pipe  for  carrying  off  waste  steam  and  water ; 
c,  is  a  copper  pipe  for  letting  cold  water  into  the  casing  of 
any  pan,  and  cooling  its  contents.  The  mordanting  sub- 
stance and  the  thickening  being  put  into  the  pan,  are  boiled . 
until  perfectly  smooth,  being  all  the  time  constantly  stirred 
by  hand  or  machinery.  The  steam  is  then  shut  off  and  cold 
water  admitted  into  the  jacketted  space,  so  that  the  contents 
of  the  pan  are  cooled.  But  before  the  mixture  is  in  a  fit 
state  for  use,  it  must  be  strained  in  order  to  keep  back  any 
gritty  particles  which  would  scratch  the  engraved  portions 
of  the  copper  cylinders.  The  straining  is  very  fre- 
quently performed  by  means  of  an  apparatus  invented  by 
DoLFUS  &  Meig 


STYLES  OF  CALICO  PRINTING. 

In  most  of  the  works  on  calico-printing,  the  descriptions 
of  the  operations  adopted  to  produce  particular  effects,  are 
collected  under  separate  heads  or  divisions,  called  "  Styles." 

The  following  list  includes  all  these  styles  : — 

1.  Madder  and  Alizarin  Dyed  .        .  style. 
la.     „         „        „       „        .       .  blocked. 

2.  Beserve       .....  style. 

3.  Garancine    .        .        .        .  • 

4.  Padding  ...... 

5.  Indigo  „ 

6.  China  Blue  „ 

7.  Indigo  Discharge  .  .  .  .  „ 
7  a.  Turkey  Bed  Discharge        .       .  ,, 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


87 


8.  Prepared  Steam  ....  style. 
8«.  Unprepared        .        .        .        •  » 

9.  Spirit 

10.  Bronze  ...... 

11.  Pigment  ...... 

12.  Extract  or  Topical  Fast        .  . 

In  the  earlier  and  more  primitive  days  of  the  art  of  calico- 
printing,  this  classification  may  have  been  useful ;  but  owing 
to  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  new  methods,  and  to 
the  practice  of  sometimes  placing  |;hese  under  one  of  the  old 
designations,  as  well  as  to  the  variety  of  effects  that  are 
obtained  by  combinations  of  these  methods,  the  above  list 
is  eminently  inadequate  and  unsatisfactory,  and  wanting  in 
the  great  merit  of  particularity. 

I.  Madder  and  Alizarin  Dyed  Style.  Syn.  Dyeing 
UPON  Mordant. — The  simplest  form  of  this  style  of  calico- 
printing  consists  in  the  production  upon  a  white  ground,  by 
the  aid  of  one  or  two  mordants,  of  patterns  of  one,  two,  or 
more  colours,  or  shades  of  colour,  the  different  depths  of 
tint  being  produced  by  varying  the  strength  of  the 
mordant. 

Another  modification  of  this  style,  whereby  very  great 
diversity  of  effect  is  gained,  is  that  in  w^hich  "  resists"  and 

discharges"  are  employed.  Thus,  suppose  it  is  desired  to 
introduce  into  a  fabric,  printed  over  with  a  particular  design 
in  purple  or  light  chocolate,  for  instance,  some  patterns  in 
red  or  white.  It  is  only  necessary  to  first  print  these  patterns 
on  the  cloth,  the  red  with  a  special  kind  of  mordant  known 
as  "  resist  red,"  and  the  other  with  thickened  lime-juice,  and 
then  to  print  it  over  in  iron  or  a  mixture  of  iron  and  alumina 
mordant  with  the  predominant  pattern,  and  then  after 
dyeing  and  dunging,  to  put  the  piece  into  the  madder  beck, 
when  the  purple  or  chocolate  design  will  cover  every  part  of 
the  cloth,  save  that  protected  by  the  "  resist"  mordant  and 


88 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


tlie  lime-juice,  the  latter  of  which  dissolves  and  leaves  a 
clear  white,  and  the  former  a  red  pattern. 

Another  variety  of  the  madder  colour  style  is  that  known 
as  the  "  French  Pink  Style,"  by  which  designs  are  produced 
in  red  and  pink.  If  more  than  one  shade  of  colour  is 
required,  the  calico  is  printed  with  a  red  or  alumina  mordant 
of  varying  degrees  of  strength,  the  whites  being  obtained 
by  means  of  lemon-juice.  The  whole  is  then  printed  over 
with  a  mordant,  which  will  give  a  very  pale  red,  and  then 
I'un  into  the  madder-beck. 

The  dyed  goods  obtained  by  the  above  processes  are  fast 
in  colour,  and  w^ash  well. 

In  the  above  ^^I'ocesses,  madder-root  has  been  almost,  if 
not  entirely,  su]Derseded  by  artificial  alizarin  and  antlira- 
purpurin. 

a.  Madder  and  Alizarin  Dyed  Style,  Blocked. — This  process 
of  printing  is  performed  by  hand,  after  the  goods  are  dyed. 
By  this  method  certain  blue,  green,  violet,  yellow,  and  other 
bright  colours  that  cannot  undergo  the  operations  of  dung- 
ing, dyeing,  and  soaping,  can  be  applied  to  the  print  and 
add  greatly  to  its  brilliancy. 

2.  Reserve  Style.  Syn.  Kesist  Style. — This  is  a 
modification  of  the  first  or  madder  style,  or  rather  a  union 
of  this  with  the  "  steam  colour  style."  The  fabric  is  first 
printed  with  acid  resists  of  lemon-juice  and  caustic  soda, 
or  some  suitable  substance ;  then  mordanted  with  red 
or  iron  liquor,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  according  to  the  re- 
quired colour,  and  afterwards  aged,  dunged,  dyed  in  the 
madder  bath,  and  cleared ;  the  parts  which  are  left  white 
are  afterwards  blocked  in  with  pigment  coloui-s,  and 
steamed. 

Sometimes  what  is  termed  a  "  resist "  paste  is  blocked  in 
over  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  the  design  originally  pro- 
duced, and  a  small  coloured  pattern  is  printed  overall.  The 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


89 


reserve  style  may  be  woi-kecl  in  numberless  ways,  and  so 
give  rise  to  a  great  variety  of  effects.* 

3.  Garancine  Style. — This  is  carried  out  in  a  manner 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  madder  style,  except  that  the 
temperature  of  the  beck  is  lower  than  that  used  in  madder 
dyeing.  Garancine  goods  require  much  less  soaping  than 
madder  ones.  With  the  exception  of  the  purples,  the 
colours  given  by  garancine  are  greatly  infeiior  in  brilliancy 
to  those  yielded  by  madder  root ;  in  addition  to  which  they 
are  not  so  fast.  The  most  predominant  hues  are  dark  reds, 
browns,  and  oranges.  In  garancine  dyeing,  catechu  is  largely 
used  as  an  accessory. 

4.  Padding  Style.  Byn.  Plaquage  Style. — This  is 
also  a  variety  of  the  madder  style.  The  fabric,  after  being 
padded  all  over  with  the  requisite  mordant,  is  dried  in  the 
padding  flue.  A  design  is  next  printed  on  it  in  acid  dis- 
charge (mostly  a  compound  of  lime-juice  and  bisulphate  of 
potash  thickened),  with  the  result  that  after  the  cloth  has 
been  aged,  dunged,  dyed  in  the  madder  bath,  and  cleared, 
white  patterns  appear  upon  a  ground  of  uniform  colour. 
These  white  patterns  or  spaces  may  be  afterwards  printed 
upon  in  steam  or  pigment  colours. 

5.  Indigo  Blue  Style. — A  pattern  is  first  printed  upon 
the  goods  with  a  "  reserve  "  paste  in  those  parts  which  it  is 


*  Solution  of  citric  acid,  or  lemon-juice  at  15°  Twaddle,  thickened 
witli  terrified  starch,  forms  the  best  resist  paste  for  iron  and  red 
liquor  mordants ;  when  used  for  Garancine  Styles  the  lemon-juice 
should  be  at  30°  Twaddle.  Oxalic  and  tartaric  acid,  as  well  as  bisul- 
phate of  potash,  are  also  recommended  ;  but  they  are  not  so  satis- 
factory as  lemon-juice  or  citric  acid. 

We  append  formulae  for  a  protecting  resist  paste  for  chintzes  : — 
Water,  6  gallons  ;  neutral  arseniate  of  potash,  15  lbs. ;  pipe-clay, 
40  lbs.  ;  calcined  farina,  30  lbs.  The  protecting  resists  are  usually 
applied  by  the  block. 


90 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


intended  shall  be  white.  The  goods  are  then  dyed  to  the 
desired  shade  in  the  indigo  vat  (see  page  142),  when  the 
indigo  is  deposited  on  every  part  of  the  cloth,  except  where 
the  "  reserve"  has  been  applied.  After  passing  the  goods 
through  a  dilute  acid  bath  there  is  obtained,  on  a  blue 
ground,  a  number  of  white  patterns,  which  may  be  blocked 
with  steam  colours.  Or  yellow  or  orange  designs  may  be  pro- 
duced by  combining  with  the  reserve  paste  a  salt  of  lead 
and  then  passing  the  fabric  through  a  weak  acid  solution. 

6.  China  Blue  Style. — This  is  the  reverse  of  the  previous 
style,  since  a  blue  design  is  printed  on  a  white  ground.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  resemblance  of  the  pale  blue 
colour  of  the  design  to  certain  kinds  of  porcelain  or  china. 
The  process  is  conducted  as  follows  : — The  goods  are  printed 
with  a  mixture  composed  of  finely  powdered  indigo  and 
acetate  of  iron.  They  are  then  passed  through  six  suc- 
cessive indigo  vats.  Of  these,  the  first  two  contain  lime  ; 
the  third,  sulphate  of  iron ;  the  fourth,  caustic  soda  in  solu- 
tion ;  the  fifth,  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphuric  acid ;  and  the 
sixth,  water.  When  the  desired  tint  has  been  reached,  the 
goods  are  washed  a  second  time,  passed  through  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  finally  washed  again. 

7.  Discharge  Style,  tiijn.  Turkey  Ked  with  Discharges. 
Enlevage. — Discharges  are  mixtures  which,  when  printed 
upon  cloth  previously  dyed  of  some  uniform  colour,  remove 
the  colour  from  the  printed  parts,  thei-eby  leaving  a  white 
design  upon  a  coloured  ground.  The  term  "  discharge  style" 
is  more  particularly  restricted  to  the  process  by  which  white 
or  coloured  designs  are  obtained  upon  a  Turkey  red  or  indigo 
ground.  The  operation  is  performed  as  follows  : — After  the 
discharge  mixture,  in  the  form  of  a  highly  acid  mordant,  has 
been  printed  upon  the  dyed  and  dried  fabiic,  this  is  next 'passed 
through  a  solution  of  bleaching  powder,  which  removes  the 
colour  only  from  those  parts  where  the  discharge  has  been 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


91 


applied.*  If  to  the  discharge  there  is  added  a  salt  of  lead, 
and  the  piece  is  afterwards  passed  through  a  solution  of 
bichromate  of  potash,  the  pattern  will  be  yellow  on  a  red 
ground.  The  same  discharge  effects  are  produced  equally 
w^ell  on  goods  dyed  red  and  pink,  when  the  white  surface 
of  the  fibre  is  covered.  By  proper  methods  different 
coloured  designs  may  be  thus  obtained. 

8.  Steam  Colour  Style.  (Prepared). — This  process  is 
very  largely  employed  for  fixing  on  woollen  and  worsted 
goods,  mixed  fibres  such  as  delaines  and  cobourgs,  and  very 
frequently  silks.  It  is  also  the  usual  method  adopted  for 
fixing  the  aniline  colours  upon  cotton.  The  goods  are 
first  worked  in  a  bath  of  stannate  of  soda,  and  then  passed 
through  a  weak  solution  of  dilute  suljohuric  acid,  technically 
knowui  as  "  sours."    After  being  drained  in  the  centrifugal 


*  The  above  is  the  process  of  Kcechlin  &  Thompson.  To  guard 
against  the  contingency  of  the  discharge  spreadiug  beyond  the  desired 
limits,  a  considerable  excess  of  lime  or  chalk  is  added  to  the  bleaching 
powder.  Menteith's  method  consists  in  placing  the  dyed  and  pro- 
perly smoothed  fabric  in  folds,  and  tightly  pressing  them  between 
two  leaden  plates,  perforated  with  the  intended  pattern.  A  solution 
of  bleaching  powder,  very  shghtly  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid,  is 
then  poured  into  the  top  perforations  and  makes  its  exit  at  the  bottom 
ones,  removing  the  colour  only  from  those  parts  of  the  fabric  not 
protected  by  the  lead. 

The  following  are  said  to  be  useful  formulas  for  discharges  : — 

1.  White  discharges  on  Turkey  red. — Water,  1  gallon;  tartaric 
acid,  ID  lbs. ;  pipe-clay  or  china  clay,  74  lbs.  ;  gum  water,  i  pint. 

2.  Bichloride  of  tin,  lbs.;  hot  water,  i  gallon;  tartaric  acid, 
9  lbs.  ;  pipe-clay,  10  lbs. ;  gum  Senegal  water,  3  quarts.  The  above 
can  only  be  properly  applied  by  blocking. 

3.  Discharge  for  machine  work  for  light  designs  : — Water,  i  gallon; 
tartaric  acid,  6  lbs. ;  starch,  \  \  lbs. 

4.  Discharge  for  red  and  production  of  blue  on  the  discharged 
spot  : — Muriate  of  tin,  2  gallons ;  Prussian  blue  pulp,  i  gallon ; 
water,  i  gallon ;  tartaric  acid,  5  lbs.  Dissolve  and  mix,  and  then 
add  2  gallons  of  thick  tragacanth  gum  water. 


92 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


machine  and  dried,  they  are  printed  with  a  mixture  consist- 
ing of  the  required  colouring  matters  and  their  mordants  : 
jifter  which  they  are  steamed  in  an  apparatus  called  the 
steam  chest." 

The  steam  chest  is  made  of  iron,  and  is  usually  about  9 
feet  high,  6  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  long.  At  one  end  are 
accurately  fitting  doors, which,wdien  necessary,  can  be  tightly 
closed,  and  kept  in  position  by  means  of  bars  and  screw^s. 
The  chest  is  fitted  with  a  double  bottom,  the  upper  portion 
of  which  is  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the  room,  and  is 
perforated  with  a  number  of  holes,  which  admit  and  dis- 
tribute steam  escaping  from  a  perforated  pipe  fixed  undei- 
this  false  bottom,  and  extending  round  three  sides  of  the 
chest.  Upon  the  false  bottom  and  parallel  with  the  sides 
of  the  chest,  a  tramway,  which  is  carried  into  the  room,  is 
fixed,  and  upon  this  tramway,  thei'e  runs  a  carriage  consist- 
ing of  wooden  rods  fixed  in  an  oblong  frame,  for  holding 
the  goods  to  be  steamed.  Much  ex23erience  and  care  are 
required  in  adapting  the  temperature  and  degree  of  mois- 
ture to  the  different  description  of  goods,  colours  and 
mordants. 

Za.  Steam  Style.  (Unprepared). — A  variety  of  this 
.style  is  in  use  for  printing  goods  intended  for  the  Eastern 
ma^rkets,  which  goods  are  known  as  "  unprepared  steams.' 
The  cloth  is  simply  bleached  and  afterwards  printed  with 
iiniline  colours  thickened.  In  this  style  mordants  are  some 
times  dispensed  with,  and  the  goods  are  not  even  steamed. 
The  colours  are  fugitive  when  exposed  to  the  light,  and 
easily  removable  by  water. 

9.  Spirit  Colour  Style, — The  colours  produced  by  this 
style  are  very  like  steam  colours,  but  they  are  not  so 
durable.  A  large  number  of  acids  (chiefly  chlorides  of 
tin,  technically  called  "  spirits")  and  metallic  salts  enter  into 
tlie  composition  of  the  mordants.  The  goods  are  not  steamed 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


93 


after  being  j)i'inted,  but  are  merely  very  carefully  dried 
after  some  hours  exposure  to  the  air,  and  then  washed. 

10.  Bronze  Colour  Style.  Syn.  Manganese  Bronze 
Style. — This  style  is  now  little  used.  The  goods  are  padded 
through  a  solution  of  protochloride  of  manganese,  dried, 
afterwards  passed  through  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  washed 
and  then  the  manganese  is  converted  into  peroxide  by 
working  for  some  minutes  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 

11.  Pigment  Colour  Style. — Pigment  colour  printing 
consists  in  attaching  insoluble  colours  such  as  those  used  by 
the  artist,  to  the  fibre,  by  the  aid  of  albumen,  and  fixing 
them  by  means  of  steam. 

12.  Extract  or  Topical  Fast  Style. — The  increased 
adoption  of  this  style,  which  is  of  recent  date,  is  largely 
due  to  the  introduction  of  artificial  alizarin.  It  mainly 
consists  in  printing  upon  cloth,  which  has  been  previously 
prepared  with  oleine  or  saponified  castor  oil,  extract  of  mad- 
der or  artificial  alizarin,  mixed  with  alumina  or  iron 
mordants,  thickened  along  with  or  without,  pigments  or 
aniline  colours.  The  goods  are  afterwards  steamed, 
washed,  and  soaped  similar  to  madder. 

As  in  the  production  of  madder  work,  a  great  number  and 
variety  of  processes  as  well  as  of  agents  tinctorial  and  othei- 
wise  are  employed,  it  follows  that  the  greater  tlie  care  and 
accuracy  with  which  the  several  operations  are  carried  out, 
and  the  purer  the  dye-stufis  and  chemicals  used,  the  more 
successful  will  be  the  I'esults.  The  necessity  of  cleanliness 
likewise  cannot  be  too  emphatically  enjoined. 
We  append  formulce  for  the  different  styles  : — 
I.  Madder  and  Alizarin  Styles  (i,  la,  and  2). — In 
the  madder  as  in  the  other  styles,  a  great  deal  depends  upon 
the  observance  of  several  little  conditions,  if  it  be  wished 
to  obtain  satisfactory  effects.  For  instance,  if  the  calico- 
printer  desire  pure  reds  and  pinks,  his  mordants  must  not 


94 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


contain  a  trace  of  iron.  The  fabrics  must  also  be  free  from 
oil  or  grease  stains,  as  these  dye  up  stains. 

Again,  if  the  print  required  be  a  light  pink  one,  this 
necessitates  the  use  of  a  diluted  mordant.  Under  these 
circumstances  a  very  gentle  heat  must  be  employed  to  dry 
the  fabric  after  it  has  been  printed,  for  if  a  weak  aluminous 
mordant  is  brought  into  contact  with  a  heated  metallic 
surface,  such  as  iron,  tin  or  copper,  its  power  to  attract  the 
colouring  matter  is  diminished  by  at  least  30  per  cent. 

This  sensitiveness  of  diluted  aluminous  mordants  when 
brought  into  contact  with  heated  surfaces  is  a  source  of 
great  trouble,  and  frequently  of  loss  to  the  calico-printer ; 
for  in  order  that  the  perfect  register  of  the  design  as  given 
by  the  impression  of  the  engraved  roller  should  be  main- 
tained, it  is  necessary  that  the  piece  be  dried  within  as  few 
moments  after  printing  as  possible.  The  cause  of  this 
change  wrought  by  heat  in  the  condition  of  the  mordant 
has  given  rise  to  many  speculations.  Some  authorities 
affirm  that  the  alumina,  being  so  quickly  deprived  of  its 
solvent,  becomes  in  substance  physically  like  horn,  and  is 
therefore  incapable  of  gradually  absorbing  the  colouring- 
matter,  as  it  does  when  in  a  less  compact  or  solid  state. 
Others  hold  the  opinion  that  when  the  alumina  mordant  is 
slowly  dried  by  heated  air,  the  particles  of  alumina  are  ab- 
sorbed by  the  fabric  in  a  highly  divided  state,  and  thus 
offer  a  greater  surface  of  attraction  to  the  colouring  prin- 
ciple. On  the  other  hand,  when  the  mordant  comes  into 
contact  with  a  heated  substance,  its  particles  are  absorbed 
in  groups,  and  consequently  do  not  present  the  same  amount 
of  surface,  as  when  they  are  in  a  more  minute  state  of 
division. 

It  will  now  be  seen  why  diluted  mordants  intended  for 
madder  or  alizarin  pinks,  should  be  dried  by  heated  air. 
In  the  use  of  diluted  aluminous  mordants  it  is  also  im- 


CA  L ICO-PRINTING. 


95 


portant  that  the  temperature  of  the  fly  dung-bath,  as  well 
as  the  clye-beck,  for  the  first  forty  minutes  should  not  be 
too  high. 

Iron  mordants  do  not  suffer  so  much  from  over-drying  as 
aluminous  ones.  Over-oxidation  is  most  to  be  avoided  in 
them,  for  if  the  iron  be  too  highly  oxidized,  the  lighter 
colours  will  be  greatly  deficient  in  brilliancy,  and  the  blacks 
will  not  dye  so  easily. 

MADDERS  (Fast  Work). 

1.  Purple  Fixing  Liquor. 

Water  7^  gallons. 

Acetic  acid  i\  „ 

Sal  ammoniac  9  lbs. 

Arsenious  acid  9  ,, 

Boil  until  the  arsenic  is  dissolved,  and  let  the  solution 
stand  till  clear,  then  decant. 

2.  Purple  Assistant  Liquor  (Messrs.  Mercer  &  Baines' 


Patent). 

Potato  starch  100  lbs. 

Water  2>l\  gallons. 

Nitric  acid,  at  60°  Twaddle  .  .123  „ 
Black  oxide  of  manganese     .    .      4  oz. 

When  the  reaction  is  over  and  the  nitric  acid  destroyed, 
add  pyroligneous  acid,  50  lbs. 

3.  Black.    For  MacJdne  Worh.^ 

Iron  liquor,  at  24°  Twaddle  .    .    4  gallons. 

Pyroligneous  acid  4  „ 

"^ater  4        „  ^ 

Flour  24  lbs. 


^-  Aniline  blacks  are  largely  displacing  madder  in  this  style. 


96 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


The  flour  must  be  woi-ked  up  with  a  small  quantity  of 
the  mixed  liquid,  until  a  perfectly  smooth  thin  paste  is 
obtained  ;  the  remainder  of  the  liquid  is  then  added,  and 
the  whole  boiled ;  lastly,  i  pint  of  Gallipoli  oil  is  added. 
The  quantity  of  flour  must  be  increased  or  decreased  to  suit 
the  strength  of  the  engraving. 

4.  Aniline  Black. 

Standard  No.  1. 

Chlorate  of  soda  14-^-  lbs. 

"Water  9  gallons. 

Starch  16  lbs. 

Dark  British  gum  16 

Boil  and  cool. 
Standard  No.  2. 

"Water  8  gallons. 

Dark  British  gum  16  lbs. 

Starch  16  „ 

Boil,  and  add 

Yanadiate  of  ammonia,  that  has 
previously  been  dissolved  in 
I  gill  of  hot  water    .    .    .    .    3  J  drachms. 
And  cool. 
Colour. 

Of  Standard  No.  2,  cold  ...    5  gallons. 

J5  ?J  I>      J)        •      •      •      3  >J 

Mix  well  and  strain. 

5.  Madder  Purple  (dark). 

Water  10  gallons. 

Iron  liquor,  at  24°  Twaddle  .    .     i^-  ., 
Purple  fixing  liquor  (No.  i )  .    .    2  pints. 

Fine  flour  1 5  J-  lbs. 

Thoroughly  incorpoiate  and  boil  as  madder  black. 


CA  LICO-PRINTING. 


97 


6.  Madder  Purple  (medium). 

Water  14  gallons. 

Iron  liquor,  at  24°  Twaddle  .  .  \\  „ 
Purple  fixing  liquor  (No.  i)  .    .     12  pints. 

Fine  flour  18  lbs. 

Treat  as  dark  madder  purple. 

7.  Madder  Purple  (light). 

Gum  water  (farina  dark)  ...      9  gallons. 
Iron  liquor,  24°  Twaddle  ...      i  quart. 
Purple  fixing  liquor     ....      4  pints. 

8.  Standard  Brown. 

Water  50  gallons. 

Catecliu  200  lbs. 

Boil  for  six  hours  ;  then  add 

Acetic  acid  4^  gallons. 

Water  to  make  up  50 

Let  the  whole  stand  for  two  days  and  decant  ;  after 
heating  this  to  130°  Fahr.  (54*4°  Cent.)  add 

Sal  ammoniac  96  lbs. 


Dissolve,  and  let  it  stand  for  forty-eight  hours.  Decant, 
and  to  the  clear  liquid,  add  gum  Senegal  in  the  proportion 
of  4  lbs.  to  the  gallon. 

9.  Brown.    For  Machine  Work. 

Standard  Brown  (No.  8)  .    .    .    4  gallons. 
Acetate  of  copper*   J  5? 


*  The  acetate  of  copper  is  prepared  as  follows : — 

Sulphate  of  copper  4  lbs. 

Lead  acetate  4  lbs. 

Hot  water  i  gallon. 

Dissolve,  let  settle,  and  dilute  the  clear  liquid  to  16°  Twaddle 

with  water. 


H 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Acetic  acid   2  quarts. 

Gum  Senegal  water  (4  lbs.  to  the 

gallon)   2  „ 

0.  Medium  Brown. 

No.  9   2  gallons. 

Gum  water   2  „ 

Acetate  of  copper   i  gill. 

1.  Madder  Brown  to  Resist  Heavy  Covers  of  Purple. 

Catechu   J  lb. 

Sal  ammoniac   |  lb. 

Lime-juice  at  8°  Twaddle  .    .    .  i  quart. 

Nitrate  of  copper  at  80°  Twaddle  2  J  oz. 

Acetate  of  copper   ij 

Gum  Seneg(d   i  lb. 

2.  Chocolate.  For  Machine  ^yorh  (dark). 

Iron  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle    .    .  3  gallons. 

Red           at  12°  Twaddle    .    .  9  „ 

Flour   24  lbs. 

Oil   I  pint. 

Mix. 

3.  Chocolate  (redder). 

Iron  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle    .    .  i  gallon. 

Red  at  12°  Twaddle     ....  6 

Flour   14  lbs. 

Oil   I  gill. 

Mix. 

4.  Drab.    For  Machine  WorJc. 

Standard  No.  8   4  gallons. 

Protochloride  of    iron    at  84° 

Twaddle     .......  2  pints. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


99 


Solution  of  acetate  of  copper     .    2\  pints. 
Gum  water  substitute  (4  lbs.  to 

the  gallon)  i  gallon. 

15.  Farina  Gum  Water  (dark). 

Water  5  gallons. 

Dark  coloured  farina    .    .    .    .30  lbs. 
Boil  well  together. 

16.  Fawns.  These  may  be  produced  by  reducing  the  drab 
of  formula  14  with  gum  water  to  suit  shade  required. 

17.  No.  20  Padding  Purple. 

Water  18  s'allons. 

Purple  fixing  liquor 

Iron  Hquor  at  24°  Twaddle  . 

Logwood  liquor  at  4°  Twaddle 

Flour  (boiled  as  usual)     .    .    .24  lbs. 
P.S. — If  a  gum  colour  is  required  instead  of  a  paste  one,  as 
the  above  is,  then  take  18  gallons  of  gum  water  (dark 
farina),  instead  of  -the  water,  and  keep  out  the  flour.  Of 
course  avoid  boiling. 

18.  Dark  Ped.    For  Macliine  Worh. 

Ped  liquor,*  9°  to  10°  Twaddle, 

but  not  to  exceed  12°  Twaddle    6  gallons. 
Flour  12  lbs. 


2 


*  The  red  liquor  of  commerce  which  is  always  used  for  dark  reds 
(but  not  for  pinks)  is  generally  made  by  the  manufacturing  chemist, 
from  crude  acetate  of  lime  and  alum  cake,  and  afterwards  freed  from 
iron  with  ferrocyanide  of  potassium. 

H  2 


100 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


19.  Standard  Ked  Liquor. 

Alum  20  lbs. 

White  sugar  of  lead     .    .    .    .    12  J  „ 

Boiling  water  5  gallons. 

Stir  until  dissolved,  let  the  mixture  settle,  and  decant. 

20.  Pale  Red.    For  Machine  Work. 

Standard  red  liquor,  No.  19        .      i  gallon. 

Gum  substitute  water  (30  lbs. 
gum  substitute  in  i  o  gallons  of 
water)  3  gallons. 

21.  Ked  E-esist  (dark).  For  Jlaclmie  Work. 

Resist  red  liquor  at  18°  Twaddle    12  gallons. 

Flour  24  lbs. 

Boil  well,  and  when  nearly  cold,  add 

Tin  crystals   12  ,, 

Used  as  a  resist  for  a  chocolate  colour. 

22.  Eesist  Bed  Liquor. 

Acetate  of   lime  liquor  at  24° 

Twaddle  90  gallons. 

Sulphate  of  alumina    .    .    .    .272  lbs. 
Ground  chalk   34  5? 

22a.  Besist  Bed  Liquor. 

Water   i  gallon. 

Alum   5  lbs. 

Acetate  of  lead   2  J  „ 

Soda  crystals   ^  „ 

23.  Besist  (dark  red).  For  Machine  Work. 

Besist  red  liquor  at  18°  Twaddle      6  gallons 

Flour  12  lbs. 

Treat  as  in  No.  2 1 ,  and  add 

Tin  crystals  3  ,, 

This  is  used  as  a  lesist  for  a  purjjle  colour. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


101 


MOKDANTS,  DISCHARGES,  RESERVES, 
COVERS,  &c. 

I.  Alkaline  Red  Mordant. 

Potash  Alum  lo  lbs. 

Boiling  Water  5  gallons. 

Dissolve  and  add 

Soda  lye  at  70°  Twaddle.  •  •  i  jj 
Make  up  to  12  gallons  with  cold  water,  let  the  precipi- 
tate settle,  then  wash  it  by  decantation  till  the  washings 
are  tasteless.  Filter,  remove  the  precipitate  from  the  filter, 
and  dissolve  it  in  5  pints  of  soda  lye  at  70°  Twaddle.  Boil, 
make  up  to  3  gallons  with  water ;  stir  in  9  lbs.  of  dark 
gum  substitute,  and  finally  boil  again. 


2.  Light  Red  Alkaline  Mordant. 

Alkaline  red  mordant,  ISTo.  i  .    .    i  gallon. 
Dark  gum  substitute  water     .    .    9  lbs. 

3.  Alkaline  Pink  Mordant. 

Potash  lye  at  54°  Twaddle  ...  40  gallons. 
Sulphate   of    alumina  (patent 

or  cake-alum)   140  lbs. 

Heat  the  lye  in  an  iron  boiler,  and  add  the  sulphate 


of  alumina  gradually,  frequently  stirring.  The  above  pro- 
portions yield  about  45  gallons  at  34°  Twaddle.  It  is  to  be 
thickened  with  dark  gum  substitute. 

4.  Alkaline  Light  Pink  Mordant. 

Potash  lye  at  41°  Twaddle    .    .25  gallons. 

Potash  alum  90  lbs. 

Dissolve  as  in  No.  3. 


102  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC, 

5.  "Acid"  (Lime-Juice  Mixtuee), 

Lime-juice  at  8°  to  10°  Twaddle    i  gallon. 

Starch   i  lb. 

Boil,  keeping  it  stirred  till  the  starch  is  dissolved. 


6.  "Acid." 


Lime-juice  at  20°  Twaddle  .  .  i  gallon. 
Starch   i  lb. 


7.  "Acid." 

Lime-juice  at  30°  Twaddle    .    .    i  gallon. 

Starch  i  lb. 

These  acids  are  sometimes  thickened  with  gum  substitute. 


8.  Acid  Discharge. 

Lime-juice  at  22°  Twaddle    .    .    i  gallon. 
Bisulphate  of  potash       .    .    .    i  lb. 
Decant  the  clear  licjuor,  filter,  and  thicken  with 
Starch  i  lb. 


9.  Acid  Discharge. 

Lime-juice  at  28°  Twaddle    .    .    i  gallon. 
Bisulphate  of  potash       .    .    .    2  lbs. 
Decant  and  filter  the  clear  liquor,  and  thicken  with 
Dark  British  gum       ....    5  lbs. 

10.  Gall  Liquor. 

Gall  nuts,  ground  28  lbs. 

Acetic  acid     .    ,  2  gallons. 

AVater   12  „ 

Let  stand  for  two  days,  with  occasional  stirring,  and  then 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


103 


Buff  Standard. 

Water  2  gallons. 

Copperas   ........  10  lbs. 

Brown  acetate  lead   2|  „ 

White      „       „   i-i  „ 


12.  Another  Buff. 

Water  5  gallons. 

Copperas  20  lbs. 

Brown  sugar  lead  10 

Dissolve,  and  let  settle,  decant  the  clear  liquid,  and 
reduce  it  to  the  desired  shade  with  gum  Senegal  water. 


13.  Sulphate  of  Chrome  Standard. 

Water  6  gallons. 

Bichromate  of  potash  .    .    .    .24  lbs. 
Dissolve  by  means  of  heat,  and  place  in  a  pan  made  of 
stoneware ;  then  add 

Sulphuric  acid,  at  170°  Twaddle    6|  pints. 

Cold  water  3  gallons. 

Then  gradually  add 

Sugar  6  lbs. 

When  the  violent  reaction  and  frothing  cease,  boil  down 
to  3  gallons. 


14.  Chloride  of  Chrome  Standard. 

Bichromate  of  potash  .    .    .    .    8  lbs. 

Boihng  water  2  gallons. 

Dissolve,  and  add 

Hydrochloric  acid,  at  32  Twaddle,  i  gallon  3  J  pints. 
Then  add  gradually 

Sugar  3 1  lbs. 


I04 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


15.  Arseniate  of  Chrome  Standard. 

Bichromate  of  potash  .    .    .    .10  lbs. 

Arsenious  acid  145) 

Hydrochloric  acid,  at  3  2°  Twaddle  1 4  pints. 

Water  .    .    ,  2  gallons. 

Heat  the  mixture  until  the  liquid  becomes  of  a  pure 
green  colour,  without  an  olive  tint.  Sometimes,  to  obtain 
this  result,  more  acid  has  to  be  used.  When  the  reduction  is 
completed,  the  liquid  must  be  concentrated  to  95°  Twaddle. 
Care  is  necessary  in  the  preparation  of  the  chrome  standards ; 
should  they  not  be  perfectly  uniform  and  smooth,  they  must 
be  reheated,  and  more  acid  added  if  requisite.  The  best 
thickener  for  them  is  tragacanth  gum. 

Under  Style  2,  Reserves,  will  be  found  a  variety  of  colours. 


16.  Fast  Blue  Standard. 

Ground-wet  indigo     ....  8  lbs. 

Soda  lye  at  70°  Twaddle  .    .    .  i|  gallons. 

Water   i|  „ 

Feathered  tin   an  excess. 


Boil  in  an  iron  pan  until  a  few  drops  j^laced  on  a  piece  of 
window  glass  appear  perfectly  yellow. 

17.  Fast  Blue  for  Block  Work. 

Fast  blue  Standard  liquid  (No. 

16)  I  quart. 

Tin  crystals   12  ounces. 

Lime-juice,  at  6o°Fahr.(i5-5°C.)  12  „ 
Gum  Senegal  water  (6  lbs.  to  the 

gallon)   3  quarts. 

18.  Fast  Green. 

Fast  blue  Standard  liquid  (No. 

16)   2|  pints. 

Lead  gum  (see  No.  19)    .    .    .  2  quarts. 

Tin  crystals   8  ounces. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


19.  Lead  Gum. 

White  sugar  of  lead     ....  8  lbs. 

Nitrate  of  lead   4  „ 

Hot  water   i  gallon. 

Gum  Senegal  water  (6  lbs.  to 

the  gallon)   i  „ 

20.  Drab. 

Sulphate  of   chrome,  Standard 

No.  13   5  quarts. 

Gum  tragacanth  water  lb.  to 
the  gallon)  10 

Cochineal  liquor,  at  4°  Twaddle    i|  pints. 

Bark  liquor,  at  8°  Twaddle  .    .    i|  „ 


21.  Fawn. 

Sulphate  of  chrome,  Standard 

No.  13  

Gum  tragacanth  water  [(J  lb.  to 

the  gallon)  

Brown  standard,  No.  5    .    .  . 

22.  Pale  Sage. 

Sulphate  of  chrome.  Standard 

No.  13  I  gallon. 

Gum  tragacanth  water      lb.  to 

the  gallon)  i  ,, 

3.  Garancine  Style. — Most  of  the  styles  that  can  be 
carried  out  with  madder  can  also  be  worked  with  garancine, 
but  with  this  latter  the  resulting  colours  are  generally  not 
so  clear.  As  a  rule  they  are  fuller,  but  less  transparent, 
even  when  they  have  been  equally  well  soaped  and  treated 
in  the  same  manner  after  dyeing  as  the  madders.  The  dis- 
covery and  introduction  of  garancine  was  a  great  boon  to 


I  gallon. 


\  gallon. 


io6 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


the  calico-printer,  since  it  not  only  enabled  him  to  produce 
beautiful  fast  reds,  purples,  and  other  colours,  cheaper  than 
by  the  use  of  madder  alone,  but  also  chocolates,  blacks, 
browns,  drabs,  &c.,  in  conjunction  with  reds — results  he  was 
unable  to  get  with  madder.  Furthermore,  garancine  and 
garanceux,  can  be  used  with  peach-wood,  yellow-wood,  and 
Persian  berry  extract,  and  thus  produce  a  fast  print  with 
red,  yellow,  brown,  drab,  chocolate,  and  black  in  combination ; 
effects  which  can  only  be  obtained  with  considerable  diffi- 
culty and  expense  by  the  use  of  the  madder-bath. 

Garancines  thus  dyed  are  scarcely  so  fast  as  madder 
colours,  nor  will  they  tolerate  soaping,  but  this  operation  is 
not  so  necessary  as  with  madder  dyed  fabrics,  for  two 
reasons.  In  the  first  place  the  colours  as  they  come  out  of 
the  beck  are  generally  brighter ;  and  in  the  second,  the 
whites  or  grounds  are  less  tinged  with  the  dye.  The  bright- 
ening of  the  colours  and  the  clearing  of  the  whites  are 
effected  by  merely  passing  the  dyed  goods  through  what  is 
called  the  "  chlor"  machine,  or  "  chemicking"  them.  The 
"  chlor"  apparatus  is  a  simple  padding  machine,  immediately 
behind  which  is  fixed  a  steam-box  or  iron  chest,  fitted  with 
live  copper  rollers,  and  two  perforated  steam-pipes,  also  of 
copper.  The  trough  of  the  padding  machine  contains  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  lime  at  from  -J°  to  i°  Twaddle.  The  goods 
are  passed  through  the  trough  and  padding  machine,  and 
then  immediately  carried  through  a  small  aperture  into  the 
steam-box,  and  over  and  under  the  copper  rollers ;  after 
which  they  pass  through  another  aperture  situated  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  box,  jets  of  steam  being  projected  upon 
them  during  their  passage.  As  they  leave  the  steam-box, 
the  pieces  fall  into  a  cistern  of  water,  and  then  pass  on  to 
the  squeezers.    They  are  afterwards  dried  and  finished. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  processes  for  dyeing 
and  cleansing  garancined  goods  are  simpler  and  less  expen- 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


107 


sive  than  those  followed  in  madder  dyeing.  Garancine 
moi'dants  also  for  reds,  pinks,  purples,  and  chocolates  are 
used  in  a  more  dilute  form  than  those  for  madder. 

The  same  care,  however,  in  drying  the  aluminous  mor- 
dants after  printing,  is  as  necessary  for  garancine  as  for 
madder  goods. 

Formulce for  a  dyed  garancine  ^;rMi^  comjyosed  of  black, 
red,  brown,  and  drah,  loith  chocolate  ground. 

Black.  Same  as  i^o.  3,  page  95. 
E,ED.  Same  as  No.  18,  page  99. 
Brown.  Same  as  No.  8,  page  97. 
Chocolate.  Same  as  No.  13,  page  98. 
Drab.  Same  as  No.  14,  page  98. 

4.  Padding  Style. — This  style,  as  formerly  practised,  is 
now  little  used,  being  mostly  confined  to  producing  mourning 
effects,  such  as  black  and  white,  and  black  and  lavender. 
The  mordants  employed  in  this  style  are  the  acetates  of 
alumina  and  iron,  the  former  giving  Vv^ith  madder,  garancine 
or  alizarin  reds ;  the  latter,  browns  or  blacks  with  log- 
wood, and  purples  with  madder  and  garancine. 

By  mixing  the  two  mordants,  and  separately  using  for 
the  tinctorial  correspondents,  logwood,  quercitron  bark, 
sumach  and  peach-wood,  all  the  colours  from  clarets  to  olive 
can  be  obtained.  The  goods  are  dunged  as  for  madders  or 
garancines,  and  dyed  and  cleared  mostly  as  garancines. 

5.  Indigo  Style. — For  Formula^,  see  pages  89-90. 

6.  China  Blue  Style. — For  Formulas,  see  page  90. 

7.  Indigo  Discharge  Style. — The  goods  are  dyed  plain 
indigo,  then  soured,  washed,  dried,  and  afterwards  printed. 
This  very  beautiful  and  permanent  style,  as  more  particularly 
exemplified  in  its  chintz  form,  is  of  comparatively  recent 
date.    Instead  of  printing  a  reserve  as  in  Style  5,  and 


io8 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


afterwards  dyeing  and  preparing,  and  finally  blocking  in 
the  desired  illuminating  colours  by  block  printing,  the 
goods  are  first  dyed  (technically  termed  "  dipped")  plain,  and 
afterwards  printed  with  such  compounds  as  discharge  the 
indigo  and  leave  the  desired  colours  in  the  discharged  parts. 
The  application  of  chromic  acid  as  the  discharging  agent 
used  for  this  purjDOse,  was  first  proposed  by  Mr.  Mercer. 
The  goods,  after  being  dyed  indigo  and  dried  for  printing, 
are  previously  padded  through  a  solution,  consisting  of  8  to 
12  oz.  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  a  gallon  of  water,  dried 
through  a  hot-air  stove  and  excluded  from  light.  They  are 
then  printed  with  a  solution  of  oxalic  and  sulphuric  acids, 
thickened  with  coloured  starch  (known  to  the  calico-printei- 
as  "  dark  British  gum").  After  this,  they  are  dried  for 
printing  in  the  usual  w\ay.  They  are  then  washed  in  water, 
drained,  and  again  dried.  There  are  other  methods  of 
conducting  this  process,  but  they  are  impracticable  and  more 
costly.  We  are  indebted  for  the  annexed  formulae,  to 
Mr.  James  Chadwick  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Chadderton, 
Chadwick  &  Co.,  of  Manchester,  who  assures  us  their  em- 
ployment will  be  attended  with  complete  success.  The  colours 
obtained  by  these  formula?,  not  only  the  white,  but  also  yellow, 
orange,  red,  green,  and,  in  short,  almost  all  compound  colours 
occurring  as  pigments,  may  be  fixed.  We  may  further  state 
that  this  interesting  style  i-equires  the  observance  of  the  two 
conditions  of  chemical  and  mechanical  printing  or  fixing,  to 
ensure  the  desired  results,  for  whilst  in  the  colours  printed 
the  chromic  acid  necessary  for  the  dischai'ge  of  the  indigo 
must  be  pi'esent,  they  must  also  contain  the  coagulums  or 
agglutinants  necessary  to  fix  the  joigments,  consequently  it  is 
necessary  that  the  chi-omic  acid  and  colour  compounds  should 
be  as  neai-ly  as  possible  neutral. 

After  the  goods  are  printed  they  are  passed  through  the 
padding  machine,  before  which  is  fixed  a  box  containing  five 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


109 


copper  rollers,  three  at  bottom  and  two  at  top.  The  fabric 
passes  over  and  under  these  rollers,  and  then  immediately 
after,  through  the  padding  machine,  which  causes  the  greater 
part  of  the  solution  with  which  the  box  and  padding  machine 
have  been  charged,  to  be  squeezed  out.  The  solution  is  com- 
posed of  sulphuric  acid  at  12°  Twaddle,  containing  in  each 
gallon  8  oz.  of  oxalic  acid.  The  temperature  at  which  the  solu- 
tion must  be  maintained  during  the  passage  of  the  goods 
should  be  from  110°  to  120°  Fahr.  (43°  to  49°  C).  After 
the  goods  or  the  piece  passes  from  the  padding  machine,  it 
should  pass  over  one  or  two  rollers  so  as  to  allow  the  gas  to 
escape  before  the  piece  falls  down  in  folds.  At  the 
expiration  of  a  minute  or  two,  the  piece  passes  into  the 
washing  machine,  and  is  lastly  washed,  dried  and  finished. 

la.  White  Discharge  for  Ixdigoes. 

Water   2  gallons. 

Bichromate  of  potash .    .    .    .  3  lbs. 
Dissolve, 

Dark  British  gum  5  to  6  lbs. 

Boil  and  work  hot. 

2a.  Oxalate  and  Ciiromate  Standard. 
Blood  albumen  solution  (6  lbs. 

per  gallon)  2  gallons. 

Neutral  chromate  of  potash  .    .  8  lbs. 
Neutral  oxalate  of  potash      .    .  i|  „ 
Dissolve  perfectly  cold  ;  strain. 

1.  Orange  for  Indigo  Discharge  Style. 

Orange  pigment  i  quart. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .2  ,, 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

2.  Yellow  Ditto. 

Yellow  pigment  i  quart. 


no 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Oxalate  and  chromate  standard.    i|  quarts. 
Albumen  thickening  (6  lbs.  per 

gallon)  1  „ 

Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

3.  Green  Ditto. 

Pigment  green   4  quarts. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .    4  „ 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

4.  E-ED  Ditto. 

Yermilion  powder  8  lbs. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .    4  quarts. 
Mix  till  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  afterwcirds  strain 
well. 

5.  Buff  (Chamois). 

Orange  pigment  2  quarts. 

Albumen  thickening  (6  lbs.  per 

gallon)  12  „ 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .    6  „ 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

6.  Olive  Ditto. 

Olive  pigment  3  quarts. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .6  „ 
Mix  thoroughly. 

7.  Brown  Dit^^o. 

Brown  pigments  4  quarts. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .8  „ 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

8.  Light  Olive  Ditto. 

Olive  pigment  i|  quarts. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .    4  J 
jMix  thoroughly  and  strain. 


CALICO-PRINTING, 


III 


9.  Light  Brown  Ditto. 

Pigment  brown  2  quarts. 

Oxalate  and  chr ornate  standard  .6 
Albumen  thickening  (  6  lbs.  per 

gallon)  2  „ 

Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

10.  Salmon,  or  Flesh  Colour,  Ditto. 

Vermilion  4  lbs. 

Pigment  brown  i  quart. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .5  „ 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 

11.  Blue,  Ditto  (Light  Blue.) 

Neutral  Prussian  blue  paste  .    .    2  quarts. 

Oxalate  and  chromate  standard  .4 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 
N.B. — The  brown  and  olive  pigments  are  those  usually 
sold  for  printing  purposes.  They  are  ground  in  water  only, 
and  must  be  perfectly  neutral  and  insoluble.  The  ordinary 
green  is  a  borate  of  chromium.  Any  pigment  colour  may 
be  used  that  does  not  coagulate  the  albumen,  which  is 
mixed  with  it,  and  which  will  withstand  the  action  of  the 
sulphuric  and  oxalic  acids  when  developing  the  design. 

8.  Steam  Style.  For  Cotton,  and  Cotton  and  Wool. 
(Mixed  Goods.)  Preparation  (before  printing). — If  the 
fabric  consist  of  cotton  only,  the  goods  after  being  bleached 
and  dried,  are  padded  through  a  machine  charged  with 
stannate  of  sodium  at  12*^  Twaddle,  then  immediately  through 
sulphuric  acid  at  i^°  to  2°  Twaddle.  This  precipitates  upon  the 
fabric  the  tin  oxide,  which  then  becomes  the  mordant.  The 
goods  are  next  well  and  carefully  washed,  to  free  them  from 
all  traces  of  sulphuric  acid ;  after  which  they  are  drained 
either  by  means  of  squeezers  or  the  hydro-extractor.  They 
are  then  dried  for  printing. 


1 1 2  BLEA  CHING,  D  YEING,  E  TC. 


If  the  fabric  is  mixed  wool  and  cotton  {inousseline  de  laine), 
after  the  good  pieces  have  been  scoured  or  "crabbed,"  they  are 
prepared  as  before  described,  but  after  being  drained  bymeans 
of  the  squeezer  or  the  hydro-extractor,  and  before  being 
dried,  they  are  again  padded  through  the  padding-machine 
charged  with  sulpho-muriate  of  tin  at  6°  or  8°  Twaddle, 
and  allowed  to  remain  so  saturated  from  i  to  1 1  hours.  They 
are  then  passed  through  a  cistern  charged  with  chloride  of 
lime  at  from  |°  to  f  °  Twaddle.  The  cistern  being  supplied  at 
top  and  bottom  with  rollers,  the  cloth  passes  over  and  under 
these ;  the  cistern  must  have  such  a  capacity  that  the  cloth 
in  its  transit  through  it  shall  occupy  from  30  to  50  seconds, 
during  which  time  it  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  evolved 
chlorine.  Directly  the  cloth  leaves  the  chlorine  cistern,  it 
falls  into  water  and  thence  passes  on  to  the  washing-machine, 
after  which  it  is  drained  as  usual,  and  dried. 

Sulpho-muriate  of  tin  is  prepared  as  follows  : — 
Sulphuric  acid,  170°  Twaddle    .    2  gallons. 

Water   8  „ 

Stir  till  cool,  then  in  8  gallons  of  water 
dissolve,  cold,  protochloride  of  tin 

crystals  25  lbs. 

Afterwards  mix  all  together,  and  reduce  with  cold  water 
to  8^  Twaddle. 


COLOUHS  FOR  STEAM  STYLES. 

I.  Red  (wood  red). 

Sapanwood  liquor  at  8°  Twaddle  3I  gallons. 

Ground  alum    3  lbs. 

Chloi'ate  of  potash   6  ozs. 

Nitrate  of  alumina   3  pints. 

Bark  hquor,  at  8°  Twaddle    •    •  5  „ 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


113 


gallon. 


Water   8  pints. 

Crystal  starch  7|  lbs. 

Boil,  cool,  and  strain. 

2.  Nitrate  of  Alumina. 

Hot  water  32  gallons. 

In  which  dissolve 

Mtrate  of  lead   96  lbs. 

Alum   96 

Common  soda  (carbonate)    .  .12 
When  dissolved  allow  to  subside  and  use  the  clear  liquor. 

3.  Pink  (cochineal)  Standard. 

Boihng  water  

In  which  dissolve 

Bitartrate  of  potash  (cream  of 
tartar)   

Ground  alum  

And  then  add 

Cochineal  liquor  at  8°  Twaddle 

4.  Pink  (cochineal)  Medium. 

Gum  (foreign)  water  (4  lbs.  to 
6  lbs.  per  gallon)  .... 
Cochineal  pink  standard  (3) 

5.  Pink  (cochineal)  Pale  or  Rose. 

Gum  (foreign)  water  (5  lbs.  per 

gallon)   

Cochineal  pink  standard  (3) 

6.  Pink  (magenta  aniline)  Dark. 


4  lbs. 


gallons. 


gallons. 


gallons. 


Gum  (foreign)  water  .    .  . 

•  4 

quarts. 

ozs. 

Dissolved  in 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle 

I 

quart. 

Tannic  acid  dissolved  .     .  . 

.  12 

ozs. 

114  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


7.  Medium  Pink. 

Foreign  gum  water     .    .    .    .  4  quarts. 

Magenta  crystals   2  oz. 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle     .    .  i  quart. 

Tannic  acid  dissolved       ...  8  ozs. 

8.  Pale  or  Light  Pink. 

Foreign  gum  water     ....  4  quarts. 

Magenta  crystals   i  oz. 

Acetic  acid   i  quart. 

Tannic  acid  dissolved      ...  6  ozs. 

Steam  Styles  hnow7i  as  "  best  -prei^ared  Steams,  not  Anilines" 

9.  Chocolate  Steam  Styles. 

Sapan wood  liquor  at  12"  Twaddle  6  gallons. 

Logwood       „         „         »    .  3 

Acetate  of  alumina  18°       „    .  4  „ 

Bark  liquor         „   12°  .  2  „ 

Starch   24  lbs. 

British  gum  (terrified  starch)    .  4  „ 

Alum    5I  „ 

Chlorate  of  potash  

Sal  ammoniac   2  „ 

Acetate  of  copper         ....  i  gill  (2^  noggins) 
Boil,  cool,  and  strain. 

10.  Dark  Blue  (Boyal). 

Water   6  gallons. 

Starch   12  lbs. 

Sal  ammoniac   2  „ 

When  boiled  add 

Prussiate  of  tin  pulp  (cyanide  of 

tin)   6  gallons. 

Thoroughly  incorporate  and  add 
Yellow  prussiate  of  potash  (ferro- 

cyanide  of  potassium)  ...  12  lbs. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


"5 


E-ed  prussiate  of  potash  (ferrid- 

cyanide  of  potassium)    ...    6  lbs. 

Tartaric  acid   i8  „ 

Stir  till  quite  dissolved ;  then  add 
Oxalic  acid,  which  has  previously- 
been  dissolved  in  3  pints  of 

water  i|  lbs. 

Mix  and  strain. 

11.  Medium  Blue. 

Gum  substitute  water  ....    3  gallons. 
Dark  royal  blue  2  „ 

12.  Pale  Blue. 

Gum  substitute  water  ....    7  gallons. 

Dark  royal  blue  i  gallon. 

Any  further  reduced  shades  in  the  same  way  to  pale  sky. 

13.  Green,  (Dark  Royal). 

Bark  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle  .    .    6  gallons. 

Starch   10  lbs. 

Boil  and  add 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .  12  ounces. 
Prussiate  of  tin  pulp    .    .    .    .    i  gallon. 

Yellow  prussiate  of  potash    .    .  14  lbs. 

Tartaric  acid    13  „ 

Extract  of  indigo  (of  commerce)    2  pints. 


14.  Prussiate  of  Tin  Pulp  (Ferrocyanide  of  tin). 
Take— 

12  gallons  of  hot  water,  in  which  dissolve 
1 2  lbs.  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash ;  add  gradually  to 
the  solution 
6  quarts  protochloride  of  tin  at  120°  Twaddle. 
Then  fill  up  the  vessel  with  cold  water ;  wash  the  preci- 

I  2 


ii6 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


pitate  several  times,  and  afterwards  filter  for  use  ;  using  of 
course  the  precipitate. 

15.  Medium  Green. 

Persian    berry   liquor  (yellow 

berries)  at  12°  Twaddle     .    .  8  gallons. 

Yellow  prussiate  of  potash    .    .16  lbs. 

Alum   8  „ 

Oxalic  acid   2  „ 

Protochloride  of  tin  at  120°  Tw.  2 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle     .    .  i  gallon. 

Foreign  gum  water  (8  lbs.  per 

gallon)   6  gallons. 

16.  Pale  Green. 

Gum  (foreign)  water  ....    5  gallons. 
Medium  green  2  „ 

17.  Yellow. 

Persian  berry  liquor  at  8°  Tw.  .    4  gallons. 

Starch  4  lbs. 

Gum  substitute  i  „ 

Alum  2 

Boil  and  add 

Protoxide  of  tin  4  pints. 

Protoxide  of  tin  is  made  as  follows  : — 2  J  lbs.  protochloride 
of  tin  crystals  are  dissolved  in  i  gallon  of  water,  and  2  J  lbs. 
of  common  soda  in  another  gallon,  then  both  solutions  are 
gradually  mixed,  and  afterwards  the  precipitate  washed 
twice  and  filtered. 

18.  Deep  Yellow. 

Bark  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle  .    .    4  gallons. 

Starch  6  lbs. 

Boil  and  add  the  following  basic  tin  compound  : — 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


117 


Basic  Tin  Com/pound. 
lbs.  of  common  soda  are  put  into  an  earthenware  vessel, 
which  is  then  placed  in  a  hot-water  bath,  and  kept 
there  till  the  heat  from  the  water-bath  causes  the 
soda  to  lose  its  crystalline  state,  and  to  become  liquid, 
when  there  is  immediately  added  to  it  3  lbs.  of  proto- 
chloride  of  tin  crystals ;  the  mixture  must  be  briskly 
stirred,  and  when  the  whole  has  become  semi-fluid, 
it  is  added  to  the  colour. 

9.  E-ED  (Wood  Red)  better  than  No.  i. 

Sapanwood  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle    8  quarts. 


Bark  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle    .    .  2\  „ 

Nitrate  of  alumina   2  „ 

Water   4  „ 

Oxalic  acid   i  lb. 

Alum   12  OZ. 

Chlorate  of  potash   4  „ 

Starch   61  lbs. 

Boil,  cool,  and  strain. 

.  Medium  Brown. 

Bark  standard   14  pints 

Sapan      „   3  „ 

Blue        „   ij  „ 

Black      „   I  „ 

Gum  substitute  water  ....  3  „ 

1.  Bark  Standard  (a). 

Bark  hquor  at  12°  Twaddle  .    .  3  gallons. 

Alum   3  lbs. 

2.  Sapan  Standard  (b). 

Sapanwood  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle  2  gallons 

Chlorate  of  potash   4  oz. 


ii8 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Alum  1 1  lbs. 

Gum  substitute  8  lbs. 

Boil  and  cool. 

23.  Blue  Standard  (c). 

Water  2  gallons. 

In  which  dissolve 

Bed  prussiate  of  potash    ...    2  lbs. 
Alum  1 

24.  Black  Standard  (d). 

Logwood  liquor  at  1 2°  Twaddle  .  2  gallons. 

Gum  substitute   6  lbs. 

Boil  and  add 

Bed  prussiate  of  potash    ...  2  lbs. 

Alum   1 1  lbs. 

Dissolve  and  cool. 

25.  Bed  Brown. 

Bark  standard  (a)   8  quarts. 

Sapan      „       (b)  .    .    .    .    .  2^ 

Black      „       (d)   I  „ 

Gum  substitute  water  ....  6  „ 

26.  Fawn  or  Medium  (Chamois). 

Bark  standard  (a)  16  pints. 

Sapan  (b)  2  „ 

Black      „       (d)  2  „ 

Gum  substitute  water  .    .    .    .16  gallons. 

N.B. — From  the  four  standards  A,  B,  c,  and  d,  every  tone 
and  shade  of  colour  may  be  obtained,  from  a  dark  brown  to 
a  light  fawn  (including  Chestnut  Cuir,  Chamois,  Cinnamon 
and  all  kindred  compound  colours),  by  varying  their 
proportions. 

27.  Buff  or  Pale  Nankeen  Standard  (a). 
Persian  berry  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle  3  gallons. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


Cochineal  liquor  at  6°  Twaddle    i  gallon. 


Alum  3  lbs. 

Bitartrate  of  potash  (cream  of 

tartar)  ^\  ii 

28.  Medium  Buff. 

Gum  substitute  water     .    .    .    3  gallons. 
BufF  standard  (a)  2  „ 

29.  Pale  Buff. 

Gum  substitute  water  .  .  .10  gallons. 
Buff  standard  (a)  i  „ 

30.  Blue  Standard  for  Shades. 

Water   4  gallons. 

In  which  dissolve 

Oxalic  acid   i  lb. 

Alum   4 

Yellow  prussiate  of  potash    .    .  8  „ 

31.  Slate  Standard. 

Logwood  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle  2  gallons. 

Blue  Standard  for  shades     .    .  i|  „ 

Medium  green    3  quarts. 

Tartaric  acid   i  lb. 

32.  Medium  Slate. 

Gum  substitute  water     ...    4  quarts. 
Slate  standard,  No.  3 1  .    .    .    .    i  „ 

33.  Pale  Slate. 

Gum  substitute  water  .    .    .    .10  gallons. 
Slate  standard  i  „ 

34.  Silver  Drab  Standard. 

Slate  standard  4  gallons. 


Buff  or  pale  nankeen  standard  .  3 
Pink  (cochineal)  standard  (3)  . 


I20 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC, 


35.  Medium  Silver  Drab. 

Gum  substitute  water  ....  3  gallons. 
Silver  drab  standard  .    .    .    .    i  „ 

36.  Pale  Silver  Drab. 

Gum  substitute  water  .  .  .10  gallons. 
Silver  drab  standard  .    .    .    .    i  ,, 


N.B. — From  the  foregoing  formulae  every  shade  and  tone 
of  compound  colours  can  be  obtained : — Stones,  Drabs, 
Lavenders,  Slates,  Pearls,  &c.  &c.,  all  of  w^hich  are  known  as 
"  best  prepared  steam  styles." 

FORMULA  FOP  MIXED  GOODS. 
Cotton  and  Woollen  (Mousseline  de  laine),  &c. 

On  'prepared  goods. 

1.  Ped. 

Cochineal  liquor,  at  12°  Twaddle    4  gallons. 

Starch  8  lbs. 

Gum  substitute  i  „ 

Boil  and  add 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .    .    i|  „ 

OxaHc  acid  li  ?? 

Dissolve  and  strain. 

2.  Crimson. 

Ammoniacal  cochineal  standard  .    4  gallons. 
Bitartrate  of  potash  (cream  of 

tartar)  3  lbs. 

Alum  (dissolved)  3  „ 

Foreign  gum  16  „ 

Stir  till  dissolved. 

3.  Pose  or  Pink. 

Foreign  gum  water     ....    3  gallons. 
Crimson,  No.  2  i  „ 


CALICO-PRINTING.  1 2 1 

4.  Ammoniacal  Cochineal  Standard. 

8  lbs.  Cochineal,  steeped  for  12  hours  in  a  covered 

vessel  (not  copper)  with 
2  gallons  cold  water,  and 

1  „      liquid  ammonia  ;  afterwards  add 

2  „  more  water  ;  boil  in  water-bath  for  2  hours, 
afterwards  sieve  off  the  liquor,  which  ought  to 
measure  4  gallons ;  should  it  not  do  so,  add 
suiiicient  water  to  make  up  to  that  quantity. 

5.  Dark  Blue. 

Same  as  royal  blue  for  cottons. 

6.  Light  Blue. 

Same  as  pale  blue  for  cottons. 

7.  Yellow  or  Amber. 

Persian  berry    liquor,   at  12° 

Twaddle  4  gallons. 

Foreign  gum  16  lbs. 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .    .    2  „ 

8.  Green  Medium. 

Persian   berry   liquor,    at  12° 

Twaddle   4  gallons. 

Alum   3  lbs. 

Oxalic  acid   i  „ 

Tin  crystals  (protochloride)  .    .  i  „ 

Yellow  prussiate  of  potash    .    .  6  „ 

Foreign  gum  water  (6  lbs.  per 

gallon)   4  gallons. 

Extract  of  indigo   3  pints. 

9.  Chocolate. 

Sapanwood  liquor,  at  12°  Twad- 
dle  6  gallons. 

Logwood  hquor,  at  12°  Twaddle    3  „ 


122 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Bark  liquor,  at  12°  Twaddle  .    .    i  gallon. 

Starch   16  lbs. 

Gum  substitute  4 

Boil  and  add 

^l^^in  7I  „ 

Chlorate  of  potash   10  ozs. 

Bed  prussiate  of  potash    .    .    .    4J  lbs. 


Most   of  these   colours  are    now   superseded  by  the 
aniline  colovirs. 
9.  Spirit  Styles. 
I.  Black. 

Logwood  liquor  at  8^  Twaddle  .    6  gallons. 

Starch   9  lbs. 

Gum  substitute  4  „ 

Boil  and  add 

Nitrate  of  iron  at  84°  Twaddle  .    4  pints. 
Mix  thoroughly  and  strain. 


2.  Purple  or  Lilac. 

Logwood  liquor  at  8°  Twaddle   .    8  gallons. 

Starch  16  lbs. 

Boil  and  add 

Yellow  prussiate  of  potash  .    .     i\  „ 


Nitrate  of  iron  at  84°  Twaddle  .  3^  pints. 

Starch  paste  ( i  lb.  per  gallon)  .  4  gallons. 

Perchloride  of  tin  120°  Twaddle  i  „ 
Mix  and  Strain. 

3.  Pink.    Use  Sapanwood,  with  tin. 

4.  Blue.    Use  Prussian  blue,  with  tin. 

And  so  on. 

10.  Bronze  Style.* — The  goods  are  padded  through  a 


*  During  the  last  three  years  there  has  been  more  demand  for 
prints  produced  by  this  style,  than  for  the  previous  forty  years. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


123 


padding  machine,  charged  with  a  sokition  of  protochloride 
of  manganese  at  from  24°  to  36**  Twaddle,  and  dried  through 
a  hot-air  stove,  care  being  taken  to  avoid  their  coming  into 
contact  with  the  iron  of  the  stove.  They  are  then  passed 
through  the  soda  cistern,  as  quickly  as  possible  after  being 
dried,  since  the  protochloride  of  manganese  being  deli- 
quescent, the  fabric  otherwise  becomes  damp,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  bronze  colour.  The  soda  cistern  is  fitted  with 
twelve  rollers,  six  at  top  and  six  at  bottom,  over  and  under 
which  the  cloth  is  passed.  The  cistern  is  charged  with 
caustic  soda  at  from  20°  to  24°  Twaddle.  In  passing  through 
this  solution,  the  manganese  is  precipitated  upon  the  fabric,  in 
an  almost  colourless  condition,  in  the  state  of  a  protoxide. 

The  fabric  is  then  carried  over  wooden  rollers,  a  process 
which,  by  exposing  it  to  the  air,  effects  the  partial  oxidation 
of  the  manganese.  It  is  then  well  washed  and  afterwards 
winched  for  five  or  ten  minutes  in  chloride  of  lime  at  4°  to 
6°  Twaddle,  which  converts  the  manganese  protoxide  into 
peroxide,  which  is  of  a  dark  bronze  colour,  and  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  style.  After  the  pieces  are  printed  with 
the  colours,  for  which  the  formulae  are  now  given,  they 
are  steamed  in  the  usual  way  in  an  ordinary  steam-chest 
at  about  one  to  two  pressures  for  twenty-five  minutes. 
They  are  afterwards  washed,  drained  on  a  hydro-extractor, 
and  dried. 


Boil  and,  when  half  cold,  add 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .    .  12  „ 
Stir  till  thoroughly  dissolved,  and  afterwards  strain. 


COLOURS  FOE  BRONZE  STYLES. 


I.  White  Discharge  on  Bronze. 

Water  

Wheaten  starch  


2  gallons. 
5  lbs. 


124 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


2.  Yellow  Ditto. 

Bark  liquor,  at  12°  Twaddle  .    .    2  gallons. 

Starch  5  lbs. 

Boil  and  add  when  half  cold 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .    .  12  „ 
Dissolve  and  strain. 

3.  Bed  Ditto. 

Sapan  or  Brazil  wood  liquor,  at 

12°  Twaddle  2  gallons. 

Starch  5  lbs. 

Boil  and,  when  half  cold,  add 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .  .12,, 
Dissolve  and  strain. 

4.  Mauve  or  Violet  Discharge  on  Bronze. 

4  B  Violet  2  quarts. 

Water  4  gallons. 

Starch  11  lbs. 

Boil  and,  when  half  cold,  add 

Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .    .  20  „ 
Dissolve  and  strain. 

5.  Blue  Ditto. 

Prussian  blue  paste     ....    2  quarts. 

Water  2  gallons. 

Starch  6  lbs. 

Boil  and,  when  half  cold,  add  ' 
Protochloride  of  tin  crystals  .  .12,, 
Dissolve  and  strain. 

6.  Green  Ditto. 

Mix  yellow  No.  2  and  blue  No.  5,  say,  2  of  the  former, 
I J  of  the  latter,  or  any  other  proportions  to  produce  the 
shade  of  green  required. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


125 


From  the  foregoing  formulse,  it  will  be  seen  that  proto- 
chloride  of  tin  is  the  active  agent  which  discharges  the 
peroxide  of  manganese,  and  at  the  same  time  becomes  the 
mordant  for  the  various  colouring  matters.  Any  colouring 
matter  therefore  to  which  the  protochloride  of  tin  acts  as  a 
mordant,  and  which  will  bear  the  quantities  given  of  it  as 
before,  can  be  used  for  bronze  discharges. 

Beautiful  styles  are  now  being  worked  with  bronze  effects. 

II.  Pigment  Style. — The  theory  and  practice  are 
described  at  page  93.  Sometimes,  however,  to  obtain 
bright  blues,  the  goods  instead  of  being  steamed  are  passed 
through  a  cistern  charged  with  boiling  milk  of  lime.  The 
hot  lime-water,  by  instantly  coagulating  the  egg  albumen, 
renders  the  blue  brighter.  Sometimes  after  fixation  of  the 
pigments,  they  are  slightly  soaped  with  the  object  of 
removing  the  unpleasant  odour. 


PIGMENT  COLOURS. 

1.  Green  (Best). 

Green  pigment  8  lbs. 

Blood  albumen  water  (5  lbs.  per 

gallon)  I  gallon. 

Mix  well  and  strain. 

2.  Green  (Generally  Used). 

Green  pigment   4  lbs. 

Gum  tragacanth  water  .  .  .  i  quart. 
Blood  albumen  water  (5  lbs.  per 

gallon)   3  „ 

3.  Brown  Pigment  Colour. 

Brown  pigment  4  lbs. 

Gum  tragacanth  water.  .  .  .  i  gallon. 
Blood  albumen  water  .    .    .    .    i  „ 


126 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Buff  Pigment  Colour. 
BufF  pigment .    .  . 


Gum  tragacanth  water 
Blood  albumen  water 


4  lbs. 
2  quarts. 

2 


5.  Black  Pigment  Colour. 
Pigment  black    .    .  . 


Gum  trag-acanth  water 


6  lbs. 
2  quarts. 


Blood  albumen  4 


6.  Olive  Pigment  Colour. 
Pigment  green  colour  . 
BufF  pigment  „ 
Black 

Blood  albumen  water  . 
Gum  tragacanth  water 


1 1  pints. 

^2  j> 
2 

2  „ 
2 


Tan  Pigment  Colour. 
Blue  pigment  standard 
Brown  colour 
Black 

Blood  albumen  water  . 
Gum  tragacanth  water 


1 2  pints. 
2 


8.  Grey  Pigment  Colour. 
Black  pigment  colour 
Albumen  water  .  . 


2  pints. 


Gum  traefacanth  water 


9.  Slate  Pig3ient  Colour. 

Black  pigment  colour   ....    3  pints. 
Blue        „       standard    .    .    .12  „ 
Blood  albumen  water  ....    7  „ 
Gum  tragacanth  water  ....    7  „ 


CA  L/C  O -PR  IN  TING. 


127 


lo.  Pigment  Blue  Standard. 

Ultramarine  2  lbs. 

Gum  tragacanth  water     ...    3  quarts. 

Blood  albumen  water  .    .    .    .    i  „ 
The  best  pigment  blues  are  made  with  egg  albumen,  not 
with  blood  albumen. 

12.  Extract  Style. — Some  years  ago,  before  the  adoption 
of  artificial  alizarin  by  the  dyer  and  calico-printer,  an  ex- 
tract of  madder  was  introduced  into  the  trade.  It  is  from 
this  fact  that  the  present  style  takes  its  name.  By  the 
extract  style,  thanks  to  the  discovery  of  artificial  alizarin 
and  other  coal-tar  colours,  effects  are  obtained  that  were 
previously  practically  impossible.  The  old  method  was  to 
print  on  the  fabric  the  mordants  for  the  madder  colours, 
and  afterwards  to  dye  it,  the  printing  in  of  the  illuminating 
colours  being  performed  by  hand.  In  extract  printing, 
this  clumsy  method,  which  generally  effaced  the  integrity 
of  the  design,  is  avoided,  with  immense  advantage  to  the 
resulting  pattern,  of  delicacy  and  fidelity  of  outline,  as  well 
as  of  richness  and  purity  of  colour.  The  discovery  and 
application  of  the  coal-tar  colours  have  given  an  unpre- 
cedented impetus  to  this  amongst  other  branches  of  cahco- 
printing,  not  only  by  increasing  the  number  and  variety  of 
tinctorial  agents  possessing  purer  tints,  but  because  the 
raw  material  for  manufacturing  them  lies  around  us.  At 
the  present  day  when  the  printer  requires  pale  chintzes,  it 
is  not  necessary  for  him  to  ransack  the  two  hemispheres 
for  the  red,  yellow,  blue,  green,  and  violet  dye-stuffs,  as  it 
was  not  many  years  back. 

COTTOTiT. 

FORMULA  FOR  EXTRACT  STYLES. 
After  the  goods  are  bleached  as  for  madder  styles,  they 
are  prepared  by  padding  through  an  emulsion  of  oleine,  or 


128 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


saponified  castor  oil,  made  by  mixing  i  part  of  oleine  to 
15  of  water;  or  i  of  oleine  to  20  of  water:  this  latter 
being  the  strength  generally  used.  The  goods  are  after- 
wards diied,  and  are  then  ready  for  printing. 

After  printing,  the  goods  are  aged  and  then  steamed  for 
1 1  hours  at  a  pressure  of  from  i  to  2  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
Then,  provided  the  prints  contain  no  mordant  of  which  tannic 
acid  is  an  ingredient,  as  is  the  case  with  the  coal-tar  colours, 
they  are  washed  and  afterwards  soaped  as  in  madder  work, 
but  for  not  quite  so  long  a  time,  or  at  so  high  a  tempera- 
ture ;  afterwards  they  are  washed,  cleared,  drained,  and 
dried.  If,  however,  the  mordants  used  for  any  of  the 
colours  contain  tannic  acid,  the  goods  must  be  passed 
through  a  solution  of  tartrate  of  antimony  (2  oz.  to  the 
gallon).  This  is  done  before  washing  and  soaping,  and  of 
course  after  they  have  been  steamed. 

1.  Extract,  Red. 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle     .    .    9  pints. 

Water   14  „ 

Olive  oil    .    .  4  „ 

Starch  7  lbs. 

Boil,  and  when  nearly  cold,  add 

Acetic  acid  at  S''  Twaddle    .    .    2  pints. 
Acetate  of  alumina  at  18°  Tw.  .    2|  ,, 

Nitrate  of  alumina  ij 

Sulphocyanide  of  alumina ...  2  ,, 
Acetate  of  lime  (at  2  lbs.  per  gal.)  5  „ 
Artificial  alizarin    (at    20  per 

cent.)   13  lbs. 

2.  Dark  Purple  (Extract  Work). 

Water  2  gallons. 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle     .    .    2\  quarts. 
Starch   6  lbs. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


129 


Boil  and  add 

Acetate  of  iron  (4  and  4)^    .    .  2  pints. 

Acetate  of  lime  (2  lbs.  per  gal.)  4 

Artificial  alizarin  (20  per  cent.)  10  „ 

3.  Black  (Chromium). 

Logwood  liquor  at  12°  Twaddle  .  6  J  gallons. 

Bark  „       .  6  quarts. 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle  ...  5  „ 

Water    2 

Dark  British  gum       .    .    .    .36  lbs. 

Starch  9 
Boil  and  add 

Chlorate  of  potash   i  ?> 

And  when  cold  add 

Nitro-acetate  of  chrome    .    .    .  i  gallon. 


4.  NiTRO-ACETATE  OF  ChROME. 

A. 

6   lbs.  bichromate  of  potash, 
3   gallons  of  hot  water  ;  dissolve,  then  add 
7 J-  lbs.  sulphuric  acid  at  170°  Twaddle,  diluted  with 
2   quarts  of  cold  water ;  then  add  gradually 
lbs.  raw  sugar. 

B. 

9 1  lbs.  nitrate  of  lead, 

9f  ,,  acetate  of  lead  dissolved  in 

2    quarts  of  hot  water ;  then  add  to  solution  a.  Mix 
well,  allow  to  subside,  and  use  the  clear  liquor. 


*  The  acetate  of  iron  is  made  as  follows : — Sulphate  of  iron 
(copperas)  4  lbs.,  hot  water  2  quarts,  dissolve  ;  acetate  of  lead  4  lbs., 
hot  water  2  quarts,  dissolve.  Mix  the  solutions  and  stir  well  ;  let 
the  precipitate  settle,  and  keep  the  clear  liquid  for  use. 

K 


130  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 

5.  Mauve  (Fast)  for  Extract  AVork. 


Acetic  acid   2  quarts. 

Water   2  „ 

Violet  crystals  (6  B  violet.)      .    4  ozs. 

Starch  i  lb. 

Boil  and  add 

Tannic  acid   8  ozs. 

Dissolve  and  strain. 

6.  Mauve  (Fast). 

Bed  liquor  at  18°  Twaddle  .    .    3  gallons. 

Water  i 

Gum  tragacantli  water  (8  ozs. 

per  gallon)  i  gallon. 

Starch  5  lbs. 

Boil  and  add 

Alum   I  lb. 

Violet  crystals  i 

Dissolve  and,  when  cold,  add 

Glycerin  standard  i|  quarts. 

Mix  well  and  strain. 

7.  Glycerin  Standard. 

Brown  glycerin  2  gallons. 

Arsenic  8  lbs. 


Boil  I  hour ;  allow  to  stand,  and  use  the  clear  liquor. 

P.S. — When  boiling  the  arsenic  and  glycerin,  avoid 
inhaling  the  steam,  which  contains  a  dangerous  gas. 

N.B. — By  following  Methods  5  and  6  all  the  ani- 
line violets,  mauves,  magentas,  most  of  the  blues,  choco- 
lates, and  other  aniline  colours  can  be  fixed  for  printing ; 
when  desired  for  dark  shades  and  neat  patterns,  starch  may 
be  used  as  the  thickening,  and  gums  for  medium  or  light 
shades. 


CALICO-PRINTING. 


J) 


Cerulean  Blue  (most  beautiful  colour.) 

Bed  liquor  at  i8^  Twaddle    .    .    3  gallons. 

Water  i 

Gum  tragacanth  water  (8  ozs.  per 
gallon)  I 

Starch  5  lbs. 

Boil  and  add 

Ground  alum  i  lb. 

Dissolve  and,  when  quite  cold,  add, 

Glycerin  standard  3  pints. 

And 

Cerulean  blue  (Roberts,  Dale, 

and  Co.)  5  lbs. 

Methyl  Green. 

Acetic  acid  74  quarts. 

Sumach  extract  7^  ,, 

Tartaric  acid  i  lb. 

Starch  5  ?> 

Boil  and,  when  cold,  add 

Methyl  green  crystals     .    .    .    i  „ 

Alum  8  ounces. 

Dissolved  in 

Persian  berry  liquor  or  exti-act, 

at  48°  Twaddle  4  pints. 

X  Methyline  Blue. 

Acetic  acid  at  8°  Twaddle     .    .      \  gallon. 

Water  \  „ 

Methyline  blue  crystals   ...  3  ounces. 

Starch   I  lb. 

Boil  and  add 

Tannic  acid   8  ounces. 

Dissolve. 

K  2 


132  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 

IT.  Pink  or  Rose. 

Is  made  by  reducing  Extract  Ked,  formnlte  (i),  either  with 
gtim  water  or  starch  paste. 

12.  Pink. 

Gum  water  (4  lbs.  per  gallon)    .    3  gallons- 
Extract  Bed  (i)  I  „ 

13.  Pale  Purple. 

Gum  water  (4  lbs.  per  gallon)  .    3  gallons. 
Extract  Purple  (3)      .    .    .    .    i  „ 


CHAPTER  lY. 


DYE  STUFFS. 

Aloes. — An  extract  of  aloes  when  treated  with  nitric 
acid,  gives  rise  to  various  beautiful  coloured  products, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  mordants,  can  be  fixed  to  silken  and 
woollen  goods.  Aloin,  the  colour-giving  principle  of  aloes, 
is  a  body  soluble  both  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  it  absorbs  atmospheric  oxygen,  and 
assumes  an  intense  red  colour.  Aloes  are  seldom  employed 
for  dyeing  purposes. 

Annotta.  Syn.  Anotto,  Annatto,  Annata,  Aexatto, 
Arnotto. — A  colouring  matter  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the 
Bixa  orellana  (Linn.),  an  exogenous  evergreen  tree,  common 
in  Cayenne,  and  some  other  parts  of  tropical  America. 
Annotta  is  usually  obtained  by  macerating  the  crushed  seeds 
or  seed-pods  of  the  plant  in  water  for  several  vreeks, 
ultimately  allowing  the  pulp  to  subside,  then  boiling  it  in 
coppers  to  a  stiff  paste,  and  drying  it  in  the  shade.  Some- 
times a  httle  oil  is  added  when  the  paste  is  made  into  cakes 
or  lumps.  A  better  method  is  that  proposed  by  Leblond,  in 
wdiich  the  crushed  seeds  are  simply  exhausted  by  washing 
them  in  water  (alkalized  1),  from  which  the  colouring  matter 
is  afterwards  precipitated  by  means  of  vinegar  or  lemon- 
juice  j  the  precipitate  being  subsequently  collected,  and 
either  boiled  up  in  the  ordinary  manner,  or  drained  in  bags 
and  dried,  as  is  in  the  preparation  of  indigo.  Annotta  so 
prepared  is  said  to  be  four  times  as  valuable  as  that  made  by 
the  former  process. 


134 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


The  term  annotta  is  frequently  indiscriminately  applied 
to  the  commercial  article,  and  to  the  colouring  principle 
contained  in  it.  This  latter  is  a  resinous  substance  possess- 
ing strong  tinctorial  properties,  to  which  the  name  hixin^' 
has  been  given.  It  may  be  prepared  by  digesting  commercial 
annotta  in  an  alkaline  lye,  and  by  neutralizing  the  filtered 
liquid  with  sulphuric  acid,  when  the  bixin  is  precipitated. 
Bixin  is  of  an  orange  colour,  scarcely  soluble  in  water,  but 
freely  so  in  alcohol,  ether,  oils,  and  fats,  to  each  of  which 
substances  it  imparts  a  beautiful  orange  tint.  It  is  also 
soluble  in  alkaline  solutions,  to  which  it  imparts  a  deep  red 
colour. 

Genuine  commercial  annotta  contains  about  28  per  cent 
of  the  resinous  substance  (bixin),  and  20  per  cent,  of 
extractive  matter. 

In  analyzing  a  sample,  it  is  only  necessary  to  determine 
the  quantity  of  ash  and  of  colouring  matter  it  contains,  the 
nearer  of  course  the  amount  of  the  latter  approaches  that 
given  above,  the  greater  will  be  its  trade  value. 

Dr.  Blyth  gives  the  following  as  the  composition  of  a 
fair  commercial  sample.  The  sample  was  in  the  form  of  a 
23aste,  colour  deep  red,  odour  peculiar,  but  not  disagreeable  : — 

Water   24*2 

Resinous  colouring  matter     .    .    .    .  28*8 

Ash   2  2  "5 

Starch  and  extractive  matter     .    .    .  24*5 

lOO'O 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  an  adulterated  specimen. 
The  sample  was  in  a  hard  cake  of  a  brown  colour,  with  the 


*  Auuotto  also  contains  another  and  less  important  colouring  body^ 
which  lias  been  denominated  orellin. 


DYE  STUFFS, 


135 


maker's  name  stamped  upon  it,  and  marked  "  patent"  ;  tex- 
ture hard  and  leathery,  odour  disagreeable  : — 

Water   13-4 

Kesin   11*0 

Ash,  consisting  of  iron,  chalk,  salt, 

alumina,  silica   48*3 

Extractive  matter   27-3 


lOO'O 

Thus,  in  the  one  the  resin  was  28  per  cent.,  the  ash  22 
per  cent.  ;  in  the  other  the  resin  was  only  1 1  per  cent.,  the 
ash  no  less  than  48  per  cent. 

Annotta  is  very  frequently  extensively  adulterated.  The 
most  usual  sophisticants  are  meal,  flour,  or  farina  of  some 
descri^Dtion,  chalk,  plaster  of  Paris,  pearlash,  soap,  turmeric, 
Yenetian  red,  red  ochre,  orange  chrome  and  common  salt. 
Ked  lead  and  sulphate  of  copper  have  occasionally  been 
detected  in  it.  Dr.  Hassall  states  that  out  of  thirty-four 
different  specimens,  two  only  were  genuine.  Since  genuine 
commercial  annotta  exhibits  but  few  evidences  of  structure, 
any  of  the  above  vegetable  adulterants  may  be  easily 
detected  by  means  of  the  microscope. 

Annotta  is  used  as  a  pigment  for  painting  velvets 
and  transparencies,  and  as  a  dye-stuff  for  cotton,  w^ool  and 
silk,  to  the  latter  of  which  it  imparts  a  beautiful  orange 
yellow  hue,  the  shade  of  which  may  be  varied  from  "  aurora" 
to  deep  orange,  by  using  different  proportions  of  pearlash 
with  the  water  in  which  it  is  dissolved ;  or  by  applying 
different  mordants  before  adding  the  annotta  to  the  dye- 
beck.  The  tints  thus  imparted  are,  however,  more  or  less 
fugitive . 

Archil.  Syn.  Arciiel,  Orchil. — This  is  a  violet-red, 
purple  or  blue  colouring  matter  or  dye-stuff,  obtained  from 


136  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


several  species  of  lichens,  but  of  finest  quality  from  Rocella 
tinctoria,  and  next  from  Rocella  fusiformis. 

The  archil  of  commerce  is  met  with  as  a  liquid  paste,  or 
as  a  thin  liquid  dye  of  more  or  less  intensity  of  shade.  Blue 
archil,  is  prepared  by  steeping  in  the  cold  in  closely  covered 
wooden  vessels,  the  coarsely  ground  lichen  in  a  mixture  of 
lime  or  milk  of  lime,  in  stale  urine  or  bone  spirit,  or  in 
any  similar  ammoniacal  solution ;  the  process  being  repeated 
till  all  the  colour  is  extracted.  The  carbonate  of  ammonia 
resulting  from  the  decaying  urine  acts  upon  the  peculiar 
acids,  the  lecanoric,  alpha  and  beta  orcellic,  erythrinic, 
gyrophoric,  evernic,  usninic,  &c.,  contained  in  the  lichens,  and 
converts  them  into  orcine.  By  taking  up  nitrogen  and 
oxygen,  orcine  is  converted  into  orceine,  which  constitutes  the 
essential  colouring  principle  of  archil.  In  the  preparation 
of  red  or  crimson  archil,  the  same  materials  are  used  as  for 
the  production  of  the  blue ;  the  only  difference  being  that 
a  smaller  quantity  of  milk  of  lime  is  used,  and  the  steeping 
is  generally  performed  in  an  earthen  jar  placed  in  a  room 
heated  by  steam,  and  technically  called  a  stove.  The  two 
varieties  differ  only  in  the  degree  of  their  red  or  violet 
tint,  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  lime  or  alkali  to  the 
one,  or  of  acid  to  the  other,  immediately  bringing  them  to 
the  same  shade  of  colour.  The  hues  given  by  archil  to  silk 
and  wool  possess  an  exquisite  lustre,  but  they  are  far  from 
permanent,  and  since  the  introduction  of  the  coal-tar 
colours,  their  use  has  diminished  considerably.  If  archil  is 
employed  at  all,  it  is  in  combination  with  other  dye  stuffs, 
or  as  a  finishing  bath  to  give  a  bloom  to  silk  or  woollen 
goods  dyed  with  some  permanent  colour. 

Barwood. — A  red  dye-wood  imported  from  Angola  and 
other  parts  of  Africa.  It  closely  resembles  camwood  and 
Sanders  wood  in  its  colouring  matter  being  of  a  resinous 
nature,  and  scarcely  soluble  in  water.    In  dyeing,  this  diffi- 


DYE  STUFFS. 


37 


culty  is  obviated  by  taking  advantage  of  the  strong  afHnity 
existing  between  it  and  the  protosalts  of  tin  and  iron. 
Thus,  by  strongly  impregnating  the  goods  with  protochloride 
of  tin,  either  with  or  without  the  addition  of  sumach, 
according  to  the  shade  of  red  desired,  and  then  putting 
them  into  a  boihng  bath  containing  the  rasped  wood,  the 
colour  is  rapidly  given  out  and  taken  up,  until  the  whole  of 
the  tin  in  the  fibres  of  the  cloth  is  saturated,  and  the  goods 
become  of  a  rich  bright  hue.  In  like  manner  the  dark  red 
of  bandana  handkerchiefs  is  commonly  given  by  a  mordant 
of  acetate  of  iron  followed  by  a  boiling  bath  of  this  dye- 
stuff.  Previous  to  the  introduction  of  artificial  alizarin 
"  Barwood  E-eds  "  were  extensively  used,  and  they  ranked 
next  in  permanency  to  madder  reds.  The  dark  barwood 
red,  however,  possessed  one  great  defect :  if  exposed  for 
some  time  to  the  air,  it  darkened,  and  became  dull.  The 
change  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  absorption  of  ammonia. 

Catechu.  >S'^7^.  Cashew,  Cutch,  Gambir. — An  extract 
obtained  from  the  wood  of  the  Acacia  catechu,  or  from  the 
leaf  of  linear ia  gambir.  There  aie  several  varieties  of 
catechu  known  in  commerce,  of  which  the  principal  are  : — 

Bombay  Catechu. — This  occurs  as  a  firm,  brittle  extract, 
of  a  dark-brown  colour,  of  uniform  texture,  and  of  a  glossy, 
semi-resinous  and  uneven  fracture.  Sp.gr.  1*39.  Biclmess 
in  catechu  tannin  52  per  cent. 

Malabar  Catechu. — Besembles  the  last  in  appearance,  but 
is  more  brittle  and  gritty.  Kichness  in  catechu  tannin 
45 '5  per  cent. 

The  amount  of  catechu  tannic  acid  may  be  determined  in 
catechu  as  follows  : — 

I.  Exhaust  a  weighed  and  finely  pulverized  sample 
of  the  catechu  with  ether,  and  evaporate  by  the  heat  of  a 
water-bath ;  the  product,  which  is  catechu-tannin,  must  then 
be  accurately  weighed. 


138 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


2.  Reduce  the  sample  to  powder,  dissolve  in  hot  water,  let 
cool  out  of  contact  with  the  air,  filter  and  add  solution  of 
gelatine  as  long  as  a  precipitate  falls.  The  precipitate,  after 
being  washed  and  dried  at  a  steam  heat,  should  contain 
40  per  cent,  of  catechu-tannin. 

When  used  for  dyeing  purposes  catechu  forms  a  great 
variety  of  browns. 

Alum  mordants  are  mostly  employed  in  dyeing  with  it. 
With  the  salts  of  copper,  and  sal  ammoniac,*  catechu  gives 
a  fast  bronze  colour  ;  with  protochloride  of  tin,  a  brownish 
yellow  ;  Vvdth  perchloride  of  tin  and  nitrate  of  copper,  a  deep 
bronze;  with  acetate  of  alumina,  a  reddish  brown;  with 
nitrate  of  copper  a  reddish  olive  grey,  and  with  nitrate  of 
iron,  a  deep  brown  grey. 

Acetate  of  alumina  and  tin  nitrates  make  but  weak 
mordants  for  catechu,  sulphate  and  acetate  of  copper  the 
best.  The  iron  mordants  also  act  satisfactorily,  although  they 
give  darker  and  duller  colours  than  the  copper  ones.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  iron  mordants  are  rarely  ever  used  alone  with 
catechu,  but  in  conjunction  with  copper  ones,  by  which 
means  the  browns  are  converted  into  drabs.  Some  beautiful 
colours  are  now  obtained  by  mixing  varying  quantities  of 
magenta  with  the  catechu  and  copper.  Such  colours  are 
fairly  fast. 

Brazil  Wood.  S^/n.  Camwood.  — This  dye-stulf  is 
furnished  by  several  species  of  trees  belonging  to  the  genus 
Ccesal2nnia,  and  was  formerly  much  employed  in  producing 
various  shades  of  red.  The  best  kind  of  Brazil  wood  is  that 
known  as  Pernambuco  or  Fernambuco  wood,  the  source  of 
which  is  the  CcBsaljnnia  hrasiliensis  s.  crista. 

This  variety  is  a  heavy  and  rather  hard  wood,  externally 

*  The  sal  ammoniac  acts  chiefly  by  absorbing  moisture,  and  by 
thus  expediting  the  oxidation  of  the  metals  employed,  aids  in  the 
fixation  of  the  catechu. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


139 


of  a  yellowisli  brown,  and  internally  of  a  bright  red  colour. 
It  occurs  in  commerce  in  cnips  and  large  logs.  Inferior 
but  closely  allied  varieties  of  tlie  wood  are — -i.  Scqxm  tvood, 
derived  from  Ccesal^nnia  Sapan,  and  Lima  or  Nicaragua 
vjood. 

The  colouring  matter  of  all  these  woods  is  hrezilin,  which 
when  isolated  occurs  in  small  orange-coloured  needles,  solu- 
ble both  in  water  and  alcohol.  Alkalies  turn  it  violet,  acids 
yellow.    These  woods  give  brilhant  but  unstable  colours. 

Coal-tar  Colours. — See  p.  160. 

Cinchonine. — If  cinchonine  (one  of  the  products  left 
after  the  extraction  of  the  quinine  from  cinchona  bark), 
be  submitted  to  distillation  with  caustic  soda  in  excess, 
there  passes  over  into  the  receiver  a  crude  kind  of  oil, 
called  chinoline  oil,  one  of  the  principal  constituents  of 
v/hich  is  a  base  called  Lepidine. 

When  this  chinoline  oil  is  heated  with  amyl  iodide,  and 
the  product  treated  with  caustic  soda  solution,  a  very  bril- 
liant blue  pigment  known  as  Cyanine,  Lepidine  Blue,  or 
Chinoline  Blue  is  obtained. 

Cinchonine  has  a  very  limited  application  in  dyeing. 

Cochineal.  Syn.  Coccus  Cacti. — This  insect  is  found 
upon  several  species  of  Cacti,  more  particularly  on  the  Nopal 
plant,  and  on  the  Cactus  ojnmtia.  The  chief  seats  of  the 
cochineal  culture  are  Mexico, Central  America,  Java,  Algei'ia, 
the  Canary  Islands  and  the  Cape.  The  insect  sickens  and 
dies  out  if  the  cactus  plant  is  grown  too  near  the  sea,  or 
exposed  to  damp  winds. 

The  female  insect,  which  only  possesses  value  as  a  dye,  is 
wingless  ;  the  male,  on  the  contrary,  is  winged.  The  females 
are  collected  twice  a  year  after  they  have  laid  their  eggs. 
They  are  first  brushed  off  the  plant,  and  then  killed,  some- 
times by  exposure  to  the  vapour  of  boiling  water,  but  more 
frequently  by  the  heat  of  an  oven. 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


The  two  chief  varieties  of  cochineal  are  known  in  commerce 
as  the  "  silver  grey"  and  the  "  black,"  another  kind  is  dark 
grey  mottled  with  red.  The  best  kind  comes  from  Honduras. 
An  inferior  quality  is  collected  from  wild  cactus  plants.  The 
silver  grey  specimens  are  covered  w^ith  a  white  dust,  which 
microscopical  examination  has  proved  to  be  the  insect's  ex- 
crement. The  white  dust  is  frequently  imitated  by  shaking 
the  insects  in  a  bag  with  French  chalk,  or  white  lead.  Herr 
DuRWELL,  a  German  chemist,  states  that  he  found  a  sample 
adulterated  with  oxide  of  zinc.  Sulphate  of  baryta  and 
powdered  bone  dust  have  also  been  used  as  sophisticants. 
The  object  of  the  adulterations  is  of  course  to  increase  the 
weight.  Genuine  cochineal  has  the  specific  gravity  1*25.  A 
peculiar  kind  of  acid,  which  has  been  named  carminic  acid, 
has  been  discovered  in  cochineal.  When  acted  upon  by  very 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  other  reagents,  carminic  acid 
splits  up  into  carmine  red  (or  carmine)  and  glucose.  Artifi- 
cally  prepared  carmine  is  obtained  by  exhausting  cochineal 
with  boiling  water,  adding  alum  to  the  clear  supernatant 
liquid,  and  allowing  the  carmine  to  deposit.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  coal-tar  colours,  cochineal  is  in  much  less 
demand  by  the  dyer. 

To  ascertain  the  colorific  value  of  a  sample  of  cochineal, 
the  dyer  generally  makes  a  dyeing  experiment  on  a  small 
scale.  He  impregnates  a  piece  of  mordanted  wool,  cotton, 
or  silk,  with  a  decoction  of  the  specimen  under  examination, 
and  then  compares  the  colour  with  that  of  a  piece  of 
similar  tissue  dyed  v/ith  a  standard  decoction  of  cochineal. 
By  this  means,  he  is  enabled  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the 
strength,  purity  of  colour,  &c.,  of  his  specimen. 

Cudbear.  8yn.  Persio. — This  dye-stufi"  is  obtained 
from  Lecanora  tartarea,  and  other  lichens,  by  a  process 
nearly  similar  to  that  used  in  making  archil.  The  lichen  is 
watered  with  stale  urine  or  some  other  ammoniacal  liquid, 


DYE  STUFFS. 


141 


and  kept  in  a  state  of  fermentation  for  three  or  four  weeks, 
after  which  the  mixture  is  transferred  to  a  flat  vessel,  and 
exposed  to  the  air  until  the  urinous  smell  has  disappeared, 
and  it  has  become  of  a  violet  colour.  The  residue  is  then 
ground  to  powder.  Its  use  is  limited  to  a  few  cases  01 
silk  dyeing,  where  it  is  employed  to  impart  shades  of  ruby 
and  maroon.  It  dyes  wool  of  a  deep  red  tint.  The  colours 
given  by  it  are  very  fugitive ;  there  are  two  varieties  of 
cudbear,  the  blue  and  the  red. 

Fustic. — Two  distinct  dye-stulfs  are  met  with  under  this 
name,  the  "  old"  and  the  "  young"  fustic. 

Old  Fitstic,  called  also  "  yellow  wood"  is  the  hard  wood  of 
the  Madura  tinctoria,  a  tree  growing  in  Cuba,  Hayti,  and  St. 
Domingo.  The  tinctorial  properties  of  the  wood  are  due  to 
a  colourless  crystalline  substance,  called  morine,  and  to  a 
peculiar  acid,  the  moritannic,  to  whicli  the  name  maclurin 
has  been  given.  Under  the  combined  influence  of  alkalies 
and  the  air,  morine  becomes  yellow.  It  dyes  woollens 
different  shades  of  yellow  according  to  the  mordant.  These 
colours  are  very  permanent.  A  commercial  extract  of 
the  wood  is  sent  into  the  market  under  the  name  of  Cuba 
extract. 

Young  Fustic  is  the  wood  of  the  Rhus  cotinus  or  Venice 
sumach,  a  shrub  belonging  to  Southern  Europe.  It  derives 
its  name  of  young  fustic  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
branches  being  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  old  fustic. 
The  colouring  principles  of  this  wood  are  tannic  acid,  and  a 
substance  tevrnQ^L  fustine,  which,  it  appears,  yields  by  decom- 
position quercetin,  one  of  the  decomposition  products  of 
queixitrin,  the  pigment  of  quercitron  bark.  Young  fustic 
dyes  greenish  yellow,  but  the  colours  are  not  very  permanent. 

Indigo. — This  blue  dye-stuff  is  extracted  from  several 
plants  grooving  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Central  and 
Southern  America,  Egypt  and  other  countries. 


142 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


The  Indigofera  tinctoria,  Indigofera  anil,  Indigoferci 
disperma,  Indigofera  2)seudotincto7'ia,  and  Indigofera  argentea 
are  the  chief  varieties  of  the  plant,  from  which  commer- 
cial indigo  is  obtained.  The  Nerium  thictorium  is  the  source 
of  the  East  India  indigo.  Indigo  does  not  exist  as  such  in 
the  plant,  but  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  atmospheric 
oxygen  upon  the  freshly  expressed  juice. 

The  method  of  its  manufacture  consists  in  steeping  the 
branches,  twigs  and  leaves  of  the  plant  in  tanks  filled  with 
water  until  fermentation  sets  in.  The  clear  liquid,  which 
then  assumes  a  yellow  or  golden  colour,  is  drawn  off  from  the 
deposited  vegetable  matter,  and  agitated  and  beaten  with 
iDamboo  poles  for  about  two  hours  to  bring  it  into  contact  with 
the  air.  By  this  treatment  the  indigo  forms  and  settles  dovm 
as  a  blue  precipitate, which  in  its  fluid  state  is  run  into  a  caul- 
dron, in  which  it  is  boiled  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
to  prevent  its  undergoing  a  second  fermentation,  which  would 
render  it  useless.  After  standing  over  night,  the  magma 
in  the  cauldron  is  again  boiled  for  three  or  four  hours,  after 
which  it  is  placed  on  filters,  composed  of  bamboo  mats  and 
canoes.  The  thick  nearly  black  paste  which  is  left  on  the 
filters,  is  subjected  to  pressure  in  boxes, whereby  the  greater 
portion  of  the  water  is  removed,  and  the  paste  becomes  of  a 
more  sohd  consistence.  The  cakes  of  indigo  thus  formed 
are  dried  by  artificial  heat,  packed  in  wooden  boxes  and  so 
sent  into  the  market.  Commercial  indigo  contains  indigo 
blue,  or  indigotin  (its  most  important  constituent),  indigo 
red,  indigo  brown,  &c.  The  amount  of  indigo  blue  or  indi- 
gotin varies  in  different  samples  of  commercial  indigo  from 
20  to  75  or  80  per  cent.,  and  averages  from  40  to  50  per 
cent. 

The  indigo  plant,  according  to  Schunck,  contains  a 
glucoside,  which  he  terms  indican  ;  when  indican  is  decom- 
posed by  fermentation,  or  acted  upon  by  strong  acids,  it  is 


DYE  STUFFS. 


143 


converted  into  indigo  blue  or  indigotin,  and  a  peculiar  kind 
of  sugar,  indiglucin,  according  to  the  following  formulte  : — 

Indican.  Indigo  blue.  Indiglucin. 

The  best  indigo  is  that  which  has  the  deepest  purple  colour, 
and  which  assumes,  when  rubbed  wdth  the  nail,  a  bright 
coppery  hue.  Its  fracture  should  be  homogeneous,  compact, 
fine-grained,  and  coppery.  When  reduced  to  powder  it 
should  possess  an  intense  blue  colour,  and  should  be  so  light 
as  to  float  on  water.  Indigo  should  leave  only  a  fine  streak 
when  rubbed  on  a  piece  of  paper.  In  general,  when  indigo 
is  in  hard  dry  lumps  of  a  dark  colour,  or  in  the  form  of  dust 
or  small  pieces,  it  is  frequently  adulterated  with  sand,  pul- 
verized slate,  and  other  earthy  substances,  which  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  when  the  indigo  containing  them  is 
thrown  on  to  water.  Good  indigo  leaves  only  a  small 
quantity  of  ash  on  ignition,  and  when  suddenly  heated  gives 
off  its  indigotin  in  the  form  of  a  purplish  coloured  vapour. 
A  simple  and  approximative  test  for  indigo  consists  in 
drying  the  sample  at  212°  Fahr.  (100°  C),  the  loss  giving 
the  quantity  of  hygroscopic  w^ater>  which  should  not  exceed 
from  3  to  7  per  cent.  The  dried  indigo  is  next  incinerated 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  its  yield  of  ash,  which  in 
good  indigo  should  not  be  more  than  from  7  to  9*5  per  cent. 

Four  pounds  of  Bengal  are  equal  to  five  pounds  of 
Guatemala  indigo. 

There  are  two  methods  of  preparing  solutions  of  indigo 
for  dyeing  : — i.  By  deoxidizing  it,  and  then  dissolving  it  in 
;alkaline  menstrua.  2.  By  dissolving  it  in  sulphuric  acid. 
The  former  method  is  used  in  preparing  the  ordinary  indigo 
vat  of  the  dyers. 

I.  a.  (Cold  vat). — Take  of  indigo,  in  fine  powder,  i  lb.; 
green  copperas  (clean  cryst.),  2|  to  3  lbs. ;  newly  slaked  lime. 


144 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


3 1  to  4  lbs. ;  triturate  the  powdered  indigo  witli  a  little 
water  or  an  alkaline  lye,  then  mix  it  with  some  hot  water, 
add  the  lime,  and  again  well  mix,  after  which  stir  in  the 
solution  of  copperas,  and  agitate  the  whole  thoroughly  at 
intervals  for  twenty-four  hours.  A  little  caustic  potassa  or 
soda  is  frequently  added,  and  a  corresponding  portion  of  lime 
omitted.  For  use,  a  portion  of  this  "  preparation  vat"  is  ladled 
into  the  "  dyeing  vat,"  as  wanted.  After  being  employed  for 
some  time,  the  vat  must  be  refreshed  with  a  little  more 
copperas  and  freshly  slaked  lime,  when  the  sediment  must  be 
well  stirred  up,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  mixed  together. 
This  is  the  common  vat  for  cotton. 

h.  (Potash  vat). — Take  indigo,  in  fine  powder,  i2lbs.; 
madder,  8  lbs. ;  bran,  9  lbs. ;  potash,  24  lbs. ;  water  at  125° 
Fahr.  {51  "5°  C.),  120  cubic  feet;  mix  well  j  at  the  end  of 
about  thirty-six  hours  add  14  lbs.  more  potash,  and  after  ten 
or  twelve  hours  longer,  further  add  10  lbs.  of  potash,  and 
rouse  the  whole  up  well ;  as  soon  as  the  fermentation  and 
reduction  of  the  indigo  are  w^ell  developed,  which  generally 
takes  place  in  about  seventy-two  hours,  add  a  little  freshly 
slaked  lime.  This  vat  dyes  very  quickly,  and  the  goods  lose 
less  of  their  colour  in  alkaline  and  soapy  solutions  than 
when  dyed  in  the  common  vat.  It  is  well  adapted  for 
woollen  goods.    It  is  worked  hot. 

c.  (Wo AD  vat). — As  the  last,  but  employing  woad  instead 
of  madder;  the  vat  is  "set"  at  160°  Fahr.  (71°  C),  and 
kept  at  that  temperature  until  the  deoxidation  and  solution 
of  the  indigo  has  commenced.  The  last  two  are  also  called 
the  "  warm  vat." 

d.  (Pastel  vat). — This  is  "  set  "  with  a  variety  of  woad 
which  grows  in  France,  and  which  is  richer  in  colouring 
matter  than  the  plant  commonly  known  as  "  woad." 

e.  (ScHUTZENBERGER  and  De  Lalande's  vat). — It  is 
known  that  the  low  stage  of  oxidation  of  sulphur  obtained 


DYE  STUFFS. 


145 


on  the  reduction  of  sulphurous  acid  by  zinc,  dissolves  indigo. 
On  this  reaction  the  following  proceedings  for  dyeing  and 
printing  with  indigo  are  founded  : — To  prepare  the  reducing 
liquid,  a  solution  of  bisulphite  of  soda  at  35  ""B.is  brought  into 
contact  with  sheet  zinc  in  a  closed  vessel,  of  which  the  liquid 
should  occupy  only  one-fourth.  After  the  lapse  of  an  hour 
the  zinc  is  precipitated  from  the  clear  liquid  by  means  of  milk 
of  lime.  It  is  then  diluted  or  decanted,  or  filtered  with 
exclusion  of  air. 

The  clear  liquid  is  then  poured  upon  the  ground  indigo, 
with  the  addition  of  the  needful  soda  and  hme.  One  kilo 
of  indigo  yields  in  this  manner  a  very  concentrated  vat  of 
from  10  to  15  litres.  Cotton  is  dyed  cold,  and  wool  with 
the  aid  of  heat.  A  vat  is  filled  with  water,  and  a  suitable 
quantity  of  the  above  indigo  mixture  introduced,  when  the 
dyeing  can  be  performed  at  once.  The  excess  of  the  low 
sulphur  acid  dissolves  the  froth  which  appears  upon  the 
surface.  During  the  process  of  dyeing,  further  quantities 
of  indigo  can  be  added  as  required.  Cotton  can  be  rapidly 
and  easily  dyed  in  this  manner  ;  and  in  the  case  of  wool,  the 
dyer  escapes  the  many  disadvantages  of  the  hot  vat  and 
obtains  brighter  and  clearer  shades.  To  print  a  fast  blue 
the  alkahne  solution  of  the  reduced  indigo  is  printed  on  with 
an  excess  of  the  reducing  agent,  aged  for  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours,  washed  and  soaped.  In  comparison  with  the  old 
process  there  is  a  saving  of  indigo  to  the  extent  of  50  to  60 
per  cent. ;  the  shades  are  richer  and  the  impressions  sharper. 
The  colour  requires  no  subsequent  treatment,  and  can  there- 
fore be  printed  on  simultaneously  with  most  other  colours. 

/.  (German  Vat). — To  2,000  gallons  of  water  heated  to 
130°  Fahr.  (54*4°  C),  are  to  be  added  20  lbs.  of  crystals  of 
common  carbonate  of  soda,  2\  pecks  of  bran,  and  12  lbs. 
of  indigo,  the  mixture  being  well  stirred. 

In  twelve  hours  fermentation  sets  in,  bubbles  of  gas  rise, 

L 


146 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


the  liquid  acquires  a  sweet  smell,  and  a  green  colour ;  2  lbs. 
of  slaked  lime  are  next  added,  with  diligent  stirring ;  the 
vat  is  again  heated  and  covered  over  for  twelve  hours,  when 
a  similar  quantity  of  bran,  indigo,  and  soda,  with  some  hme 
are  added. 

In  about  forty-eight  hours  the  vat  may  be  w^orked  ;  but 
as  the  reducing  powers  of  the  bran  are  somewhat  feeble, 
6  lbs.  of  molasses  are  added.  Should  the  fermentation  be  too 
energetic,  it  must  be  repressed  by  the  addition  of  lime  :  if 
too  sluggish,  it  must  be  stimulated  by  the  addition  of  bran 
and  molasses.    It  is  worked  hot. 

Sulphate  of  Indigo.  Syn.  Sulphindylic  Acid,  Sul- 
PHiNDiGOTic  Acid,  Saxony  Blue,  Soluble  Indigo. — This 
is  generally  prepared  by  adding  indigo  in  fine  powder  i  part, 
to  ISTordhausen  sulphuric  acid  5  parts,  or  oil  of  vitriol  8  parts, 
contained  in  a  stoneware  vessel  placed  in  a  tub  of  very  cold 
water,  to  prevent  the  mixture  heating.  The  ingredients  are 
stirred  together  with  a  glass  rod  at  short  intervals,  until  the 
solution  is  complete,  after  which  the  whole  is  allowed  to 
repose  for  about  forty-eight  hours,  by  which  time  it  becomes 
a  homogeneous  pasty  mass  of  an  intense  blue  colour,  which 
in  a  dull  light  appears  nearly  black. 

The  above  preparation,  diluted  with  about  twice  its  weight 
of  soft  water,  is  converted  into  "  Saxony  blue." 

Wool,  silk,  linen,  and  cotton,  may  each  be  dyed  blue  in 
the  indigo  vat.  The  goods  after  being  passed  through  a 
weak  alkaline  solution,  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  vat 
for  about  fifteen  minutes ;  they  are  then  freely  exposed  to 
the  air ;  the  immersion  in  the  vat  and  the  exposure  are 
repeated  until  the  colour  becomes  sufficiently  deep.  Woad 
and  madder  improve  the  richness  of  the  dye.  Other  deoxi- 
dizing substances,  besides  those  above  mentioned,  may  be 
used  to  effect  the  solution  of  the  indigo  ;  thus  a  mixture  of 
caustic  soda,  grape  sugar,  indigo,  and  water,  is  often  em- 


DYE  STUFFS. 


H7 


ployed  on  the  Continent  for  this  purpose ;  and  orpiment, 
lime,  and  pearlash  are  also  occasionally  used.  When  pro- 
perly prepared,  the  indigo  vat  may  be  kept  in  action  for 
several  months  by  the  addition  of  one  or  other  of  its  con- 
stituents, as  required.  An  excess  of  either  copperas  or  lime 
should  be  avoided. 

1.  Solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo  is  added  to  water,  as 
required,  and  the  goods,  previously  boiled  with  alum,  are 
then  immersed  in  it,  and  the  boiling  and  immersion  are 
repeated  until  the  wool  becomes  sufficiently  dyed. 

With  this,  every  shade  of  blue  may  be  dyed,  but  it  is  most 
commonly  employed  to  give  a  ground  to  logwood  blues.  The 
colouring  matter  has  affinity  for  wool  and  silk  with  or 
without  mordant,  but  none  for  cotton.  A  solution  of  soluble 
indigo  (sulphindylate  of  potassa  or  soda),  in  water  made 
very  slightly  acid  with  sulphuric  acid,  imparts  a  very  fine  blue 
to  cloth,  superior  in  tint  to  that  given  by  the  simple  sulphate. 

2.  Give  the  goods  a  mordant  of  alum,  or  of  acetate  of 
alumina  ("  red  liquor,")  then  rinse  them  well,  and  boil  them 
in  a  bath  of  logwood,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  blue  vitriol 
has  been  added  ;  lastly,  rinse  and  dry. 

3 .  Boil  the  goods  for  a  short  time  in  a  bath  of  logwood , 
then  add  to  the  liquor  tartar  and  verdigris,  in  the  proportion 
of  I  oz.  of  each  to  every  lb.  of  logwood  employed  ;  and  again 
boil  for  a  short  time. 

Kermes.  Syn.  Kermes  Grain,  Alkermes. — The  dried 
bodies  of  the  Coccus  ilicis  (Linn.),  a  small  insect  which 
flourishes  on  the  Ilex  oak  or  Quercus  cocciferce,  a  tree  growing 
in  the  South  of  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Greek  Islands. 
Kermes  now  only  finds  use  in  Spain,  Morocco,  and  Turkey, 
where  it  is  used  for  dyeing  leather  and  woollens.  The 
colouring  matter  yielded  by  it  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
existing  in  cochineal,  but  is  not  so  brilliant.  It  is  unacted 
upon  by  soap  or  alkalies. 

L  2 


148 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Lac.  Syn.  Lac  lake,  Indian  cochineal. — The  source  of 
this  dye,  the  colouring  matter  of  which  is  very  similar  to  that 
found  in  cochineal,  is  a  species  of  Coccus — the  Coccus  lacccE, 
a  native  of  India.  The  insect  punctures  the  branches  of 
certain  species  of  the  fig,  more  especially  the  Ficus  religiosa 
indica,  the  juice  exuding  from  which  in  consequence,  whilst 
becoming  inspissated,  encloses  the  creature,  and  at  last 
hardens  into  a  resinous  mass  around  it,  which  becomes  tinged 
with  the  colouring  principle  contained  in  the  insect.  By 
treating  this  resinous  substance,  known  as  stick  lac,  with  a 
weak  alkaline  solution,  and  then  adding  to  this  a  solution  of 
alum,  the  pigment  separates  in  the  form  of  a  lac  lake.  Lac 
dye  is  only  suited  for  woollen  or  silk  goods.  It  gives  scarlet 
colours  like  those  obtained  from  cochineal,  but  of  a  less 
brilliant  character. 

The  physical  tests  of  a  good  lac-dye  are  that  it  should  be 
tolerably  easily  broken  by  the  fingers  ;  that  the  fracture 
should  exhibit  a  deep  red  colour ;  that  it  should  not  have  a 
shining  resinous  appearance,  and  that  it  should  evolve  a 
pronounced  and  pecuHar  odour.  The  harder  it  is,  the 
larger  is  the  amount  of  shellac,  and  the  smaller  the  quantity 
of  colouring  matter  it  contains. 

It  may  be  tested  by  putting  5  grains  of  each  sample  in  a 
phial,  and  covering  with  about  2  fluid  drachms  of  scarlet 
finishing  spirit,  and  setting  aside  all  the  specimens  so  treated 
for  an  hour,  after  which  about  an  ounce  of  water  is 
added  to  each  phial,  all  the  phials  being  then  exposed  for 
another  hour  to  a  moderate  heat.  They  are  then  examined 
as  to  their  respective  depths  of  colour.  This  examination 
is  all  that  is  necessary  when  the  lacs  are  used  for  printing, 
or  for  dyeing  wool  or  woollen  fabrics. 

When  used,  however,  for  woollen  goods  that  require  to 
be  subsequently  hot  pressed,  the  amount  of  resin  contained 
in  the  lac  must  be  first  ascertained ;  for  if  this  resin  is  in 


DYE  STUFFS. 


49 


excess,  the  pressing  papers  will  adhere  to  it  in  patches,  and 
consequently  spoil  the  goods.  To  ascertain  the  amount  of 
resin  in  a  lac,  take  equal  weights  of  the  samples  reduced  to 
powder,  and  place  them  in  small  flasks,  pouring  upon  each 
sample  an  equal  measure  of  alcohol.  The  flasks  are  then 
loosely  stoppered  and  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat,  after  which 
the  clear  solutions  are  decanted  off  into  capsules,  the  tares  of 
which  have  been  previously  taken.  The  contents  of  the 
capsules  are  then  evaporated  to  dryness  and  weighed.  The 
difference  in  the  tare  of  each  capsule  wdll  of  course  represent 
the  amount  of  shellac  in  each  sample. 

A  great  variety  of  brands  of  lac  lake  are  upon  the  market, 
but  the  trade  mark  is  no  evidence  of  excellence. 

Messrs.  Brooke,  Simpson,  &  Spiller  prepare  a  lac  dye 
which  is  said  to  be  superior  to  that  which  comes  from  India. 
They  obtain  a  lac-lake  by  dissolving  stick  lac  in  weak 
ammonia,  and  then  adding  to  the  solution  chloride  of  tin. 

The  colouring  matter  of  stick  lac,  although  not  identical 
with  that  of  cochineal,  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
it  in  its  properties. 

La  Kao. — The  Rhamnus  chloroi^horus  and  Rliamnus 
utilis  yield  a  green  dye  much  used  by  the  Chinese,  and 
formerly  by  the  Enghsh  dyer,  wdio  has  latterly  abandoned 
it  for  the  aniline  greens. 

Logwood.  Syn.  Campeachy  Wood. — This  is  the  heart- 
wood  of  Ilcematoxylon  cam'pecliianum,  a  native  of  the  coast 
of  Campeachy,  and  cultivated  in  India  and  tlie  West  Indies. 
Hoiinatoxylin,  the  colouring  principle  of  logwood,  occurs  in 
brilliant  reddish-white  or  straw-yellow  crystals. 

When  dissolved  in  water,  hcematoxylin  forms  a  colourless 
solution,  which  is  rendered  purple-red  by  the  smallest  addi- 
tion of  ammonia.  An  extract  of  logwood  is  very  frequently 
used  in  dyeing,  instead  of  the  wood.  In  common  with  other 
dye  extracts,  it  should  be  prepared  in  vacuum  pans,  and. 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


with  exclusion,  as  far  as  possible,  of  air,  the  presence  of 
which  acts  detrimentally  on  the  colouring  matter. 

Madder. — The  Ruhia  tinctorium,  the  roots  of  which  yield 
the  madder  dye,  is  a  perennial  plant  growing  in  the  Southern, 
Central,  and  Western  parts  of  Europe.  Another  variety, 
the  Ruhia  "peregrina,  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  Levant,  and 
a  third,  the  Ruhiam  mungista  or  mungeet,  in  India  and  Japan. 
The  Levant,  Indian,  and  Japanese  madders  are  also  some- 
times found  in  the  wild  state.  All  the  varieties  are  peren- 
nial. The  dye-stuff  imported  under  the  name  of  "  mungeet" 
from  India,  is  the  reedy  stem  of  a  species  of  ruhia,  and  is 
inferior  in  tinctorial  power  to  the  two  other  varieties. 
Large  quantities  of  mungeet  are  used  in  Thibet  for  dyeing 
the  apparel  worn  by  the  Llamas.  Madder  root  varies  from 
4  to  lo  inches  in  length,  and  is  about  the  thickness  of  an 
ordinary  goose  quill.  Deprived  of  its  external  brown  bark, 
it  presents  a  yellowish  red  appearance,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Avignon  madder,  has  a  strong  smell.  The 
Zealand  or  Holland  madders  are  distinguished  for  their 
marked  odour. 

The  best  kind  of  madder  is  that  grown  in  the  Levant, 
which  occurs  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  lizari  or 
alizari.^  The  roots  of  the  Levant  madder  are  rather  thicker 
than  those  of  the  other  varieties,  which  is  due  to  their 
being  allowed  to  attain  a  growth  of  four  or  five  years, 
whereas  the  other  roots  are  used  when  they  are  from 
two  to  three  years  old.  Madder  is  sent  into  the  market 
under  the  forms  of  root  and  powder,  the  latter  being  always 
kept  in  strong  oaken  casks,  so  as  to  protect  it  from  the 
action  of  air  and  light.  European  madder  root  when  in 
powder  is  technically  known  as  racine. 


*  By  these  terms  is  understood  the  entire  root  of  the  madder.  The 
term  madder  is  applied  to  the  root  whea  pulverized. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


Besides  Dutch  madder,  that  from  Alsace  and  Avignon  is 
— or  rather,  before  the  extensive  employment  of  the  arti- 
ficial alizarin  and  purpurin,  was — in  very  large  demand, 
and  had  a  high  reputation.  Alsatian  madder  is  sent  into 
the  market  in  the  state  of  a  very  fine  powder ;  and  in  order 
to  extract  its  tinctorial  principle,  it  requires  boiling  a  much 
longer  time  than  the  Levant  madder.  It  has  a  penetrating 
smell  and  a  bitter  taste,  and  readily  absorbs  moisture  by 
exposure.  It  is  in  best  condition  after  being  kept  for  two 
years.  Avignon  madder  possesses  an  agreeable  and  rather 
pungent  odour.  It  is  met  with  in  the  condition  of  a  very 
fine  powder.  It  absorbs  moisture  less  readily  than  the  other 
species.  That  which  has  been  kept  in  casks  for  a  year  is  to 
be  preferred  for  use.  It  keeps  well  and  undergoes  Kttle  if 
any  fermentation.  The  finest  quality  of  ground  madder  is 
called  cro^;,  or  grcq)2)e;  next  come  omhro  and  gamene.  dind 
lastly  mull,  which  consists  of  the  refuse  and  dust  from  the 
madder  grinding  rooms. 

Flowers  of  madder.,  orfleur  de  garance,  as  the  preparation 
is  called  by  the  French  dyers,  is  obtained  by  infusing  i  part 
of  madder  in  fine  powder  in  8  or  i  o  parts  w^ater,  and  setting 
up  fermentation  in  the  liquid,  whereby  the  large  amount  of 
sugar*  which  the  root  contains  is  removed.  The  residue  is 
then  thoroughly  w^ashed  wdth  warm  and  afterwards  with 
cold  water.  The  residue  being  next  freed  from  water  by 
means  of  hydraulic  pressure,  is  carefully  dried,  and  after 
being  again  reduced  to  powder  is  ready  for  use.  It  is  used 
in  the  same  manner  as  madder,  except  that  in  the  dye-beck 
it  is  subjected  to  a  lower  temperature.  By  the  above  treat- 
ment the   pectous  substances  of  the  madder  root,  which 


*  The  fermented  liquid,  being  submitted  to  distillation,  yields  a 
spirit,  which  is  employed  for  technical  purposes. 


152 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


would  otherwise  become  insoluble  during  the  process  of 
dyeing,  are  eliminated. 

Garancine  is  obtained  by  first  moistening  madder  root,  re- 
duced to  fine  powder,  with  water,  and  next  adding  ^  part  of 
sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  double  as  much  water.  The 
mixture  is  next  heated  by  steam  for  an  hour,  and  the  acid 
removed  from  the  magma  by  well  washing  this  latter 
in  water.  The  resulting  garancine,  next  submitted  to 
hydraulic  pressure,  whereby  the  water  is  removed,  is  then 
dried  and  finally  ground  to  a  very  fine  powder,  which 
amounts  to  about  2  5  per  cent,  of  the  madder  root  operated 
upon.  The  sulphuric  acid  destroys  much  of  the  woody 
fibre  and  other  substances  which  interfere  with  the  dyeing 
properties  of  the  madder.  The  tinctorial  value  of  garancine 
is  three  or  four  times  that  of  madder. 

When  the  fluids  of  the  beck  left  after  dyeing  with  madder 
root,  are  strained  from  the  solid  residue,  and  this  is  treated 
with  half  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  resulting 
mass  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  followed  in  preparing 
garancine,  a  product  is  obtained,  which  after  drying,  goes  by 
the  name  of  garanceux.  Garanceux  is  mostly  used  for  pro- 
ducing sad  colours.  It  is  inferior  in  tinctorial  power  to 
garcmcine. 

Madder  Extracts  are  made  by  treating  madder  root  with 
boiling  water,  collecting  the  precipitates  which  form  as  the 
infusion  cools,  mixing  them  with  gum  or  starch,  and  then 
adding  acetate  of  alumina  or  iron.  Extracts  so  prepared 
form  mordanted  dyes,  which  are  available  for  direct  applica- 
tion in  calico  printing. 

The  consumption  of  madder,  and  the  various  tinctorial  pre- 
parations obtained  from  it,  have,  owing  to  the  recent  intro- 
duction of  artificial  alizarin  and  purpurin,  greatly  declined 
in  England. 

Madder  root  contains  several  distinct   principles,  such 


DYE  STUFFS, 


153 


as  madder  red  or  cdizarin,  madder  imrijle  or  purpurin,'^ 
madder  orange  or  rubiacin,  madder  yelloic  or  xanthin. 

The  researches  of  Schunck  have  shown  that  ahzarin,  the 
colouring  principle  of  madder  root,  is  derived  from  a  glucoside 
which  he  terms  ruhian,  which,  under  the  influence  of  acids 
and  alkalies,  and  of  a  peculiar  nitrogenized  ferment  known 
as  erythrozym,  splits  up  into  alizarin  and  other  colouring 
matter,  and  a  fermentable  sugar. 

The  following  equation,  according  to  Gerhardt,  represents 
the  reaction  that  takes  place  : — 

+  H,0  =  +  C^H^. 

Rubian.  Alizarin.  Glucose. 

The  chief  mordants  used  in  madder  dyeing  and  calico- 
printing,  are  the  acetates  or  pyrolignites  of  alumina  and 
iron,  the  first  known  as  "  red  hquor  the  second  as  "  black" 
or  "  iron  liquor." 

Formulse  for  Red  Liquor  : — 

1 .  Ure.    Standard  Red  Liquor. 

Alum  20  lbs. 

Sugar  of  lead  i2-|  „ 

Boiling  water  5  gallons. 

Stir  till  dissolved  ;  let  settle  and  draw  of  the  clear. 

2.  KCECHLIN. 

Alum  II  kilos. 

Acetate  of  lead  82*5  grammes. 

Boiling  water  32  litres. 

According  to  Kcechlin,  this  mordant  produces  the  deepest 
tints  with  nearly  all  tinctorial  substances. 


*  Purpurin  occurs  in  crystalline  red  needles,  insoluble  in  cold,  but 
soluble  in  hot  water,  and  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  solutions  of  the  alka- 
lies.   Its  formula  is  C<.H,.0,. 


154  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


3.  Five-fourths  Mordant. 

Alum  625  grammes. 

Acetate  of  lead  450  „ 

Boiling  water  2  litres. 

The  following,  which  are  French  formulae  for  red  liquor^ 
have  a  high  reputation  : — 

4.  A.  B.  c. 

Alum   .    .    .    16  kilos.  ...    80  kilos.  ...  10  kilos. 
Acetate  of  lead   12    „      ...    8*5  ...  10  „ 

Boiling  water     62    „      ...  60*0    „     ...  20  „ 

Extract  of  Lima  ] 

wood    at  20°^    "      •••  -    (^*3  ) 

wooa   at  20  I     o^^^^^^^^i^^    4°  Twaddle. 

Baume  .    .    .  j  ^ 
It  is  customary  with  English  dyers  to  make  up  the  above 
without  the  peachwood  liquor,  and  to  add  it  when  the  colour 
is  being  prepared  for  printing. 

5.  For  Garancine  (Muspratt). 

At  11°  Baume  =  1-083  sp.  gr.  =  15°  Twaddle. 

Alum  25  kilos. 

Acetate  of  lead  19  „ 

Water   80  litres. 

6.  Strong  Mordant. 

At  ]  1°  Baume. 

Alum   2  J  kilos. 

Acetate  of  lead   2  ,, 

Water   6*3  litres. 

The  German  dyers  frequently  prepare  their  red  Hquor 
from  basic  alum,  which  they  dissolve  in  acetic  acid,  the  basic 
alum  being  first  obtained  by  treating  alum  with  carbonate  of 
soda.  Acetate  of  lime  being  a  cheaper  commodity  than  lead 
acetate,  is  frequently  substituted  for  it.  The  chlorides  of 
ammonium,  sodium,  and  zinc  are  added  to  red  liquor,  since 


DYE  STUFFS. 


155 


they  prevent  the  too  rapid  drying  of  the  acetate  on  the  fibre. 
Tartrate  of  akimina,  which  is  formed  when  cream  of  tartar 
is  mixed  with  alum,  is  found  to  be  superior  to  the  acetate 
for  dyeing  woollen  goods. 

"  Iron  liquor"  or  "  black  liquor"  is  made  as  follows  : — 

1.  Copperas,  300  lbs., dissolved  in  175  gallons  of  hot  water; 
to  the  solution  is  added  5  7  gallons  of  acetate  of  lime  Hquor 
at  16°  Twaddle. 

2.  Copperas  32  lbs.;  pyroligneous  acid  at  7°  Twaddle; 
acetate  of  lime  liquor,  at  24*^'  Twaddle,  10  gallons. 

Iron  liquor  at  about  6°  Twaddle,  when  properly  thickened, 
gives  black  with  madder.  From  4°  Twaddle  downwards  to  a 
very  diluted  state,  it  gives  various  shades  of  purple  or  lilac  ; 
mixed  with  red  liquor,  it  gives  chocolates. 

The  purified  pyroligneous  acid  should  be  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  these  mordants,  as  the  tarry  matters  contained 
in  the  crude  acid  act  injuriously.  Starch  is  the  best  thickener 
for  iron  liquor. 

Madder  is  adulterated  with  powdered  brick,  ochre,  yellow 
sand,  yellow  clay,  oak  sawdust,  mahogany  sawdust,  fustic, 
and  various  dye  woods.  The  presence  of  any  foreign  mineral 
matter  may  be  detected  by  the  amount  of  ash  yielded  on 
incineration.  Good  madder  should  yield  from  9  to  1 1  per 
cent,  of  ash. 

The  best  method  of  estimating  the  tinctorial  value  of  a 
sample  of  madder  is  to  compare  its  dyeing  power  with  a 
specimen  of  known  good  quality,  which  is  carried  out  by  the 
following  process,  given  by  Dr.  Calvert  : — Place  1 2  grains 
of  each  sample  in  pans  of  copper  or  block-tin  with  a  quart 
of  water.  The  pans  are  placed  in  a  water-bath,  heated  by 
means  of  a  jet  of  steam.  A  piece  of  cahco,  mordanted  with 
red,  purple,  and  chocolate  mordants,  which  cover  about 
three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  is  placed  in  each  pan. 

It  is  important  that  each  strip  taken  should  be  about 


156 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


3  inches  in  breadth,  and  its  length  equal  to  one-half  the 
breadth  of  the  calico  (26  inches).  The  swatches  are  placed  in 
the  pans  whilst  cold,  steam  is  then  turned  on,  and  the  tem- 
perature is  gradually  raised  during  an  hour  and  a  half  to 
180°  Fahr.  (82°  C),  and  then  for  half  an  hour  kept  as  near 
the  boiling-point  as  possible.  During  the  whole  time  of  the 
operation  the  pieces  should  be  constantly  and  carefully  lifted 
out  of  the  dyeing  liquor,  either  with  a  glass-rod,  or  better 
still,  by  a  mechanical  arrangement. 

When  the  dyeing  is  completed,  the  pieces  are  thoroughly 
washed  with  pure  water,  and  the  brilliancy  and  intensity  of 
shade  carefully  compared.  If  the  samples  under  trial  are 
found  to  be  weaker  than  the  standard,  the  dyeing  operation 
is  repeated,  adding  such  a  quantity  of  the  inferior  madder 
as  will  bring  up  the  colour  to  the  same  intensity  as  the 
standard.  The  values  are  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  quanti- 
ties taken.  A  further  trial  is,  however,  necessary  to  arrive 
at  a  correct  conclusion  as  to  the  value.  The  dyed  pieces 
are  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  is  kept  for  com- 
parison, whilst  the  other  is  submitted  to  a  light  soaping  ; 
three  or  four  grains  of  soap  to  a  quart  of  water  being  suffi- 
cient for  the  surfaces  above  given.  They  are  carefully 
heated  in  this  solution  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  the  tem- 
perature being  kept  at  180°  Fahr.  (82°  C).  They  are  then 
washed  and  dried,  and  the  tints  again  compared.  The  first 
operation  gives  the  total  amount  of  colour,  the  second 
removes  any  colouring  matter  of  the  dye  woods  which  may 
have  been  used  for  the  purposes  of  adulteration. 

Murexid.  Syn,  Purpurate  of  Ammonia. — By  adding  to 
a  solution  of  alloxan  and  alloxan  tin  a  solution  of  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  magnificent  iridescent  crystals  of  a  beautiful 
reddish  purple  by  transmitted,  and  of  an  equally  beautiful 
green  colour  by  reflected,  light  are  obtained.  Some  years  back 
this  substance,  known  as  "  murexid,"  was  extensively  used  in 


DYE  STUFFS. 


157 


dyeing,  but  it  is  now  almost,  if  not  entirely,  superseded  by 
the  coal-tar  colours. 

Peachwood.  Byn.  St.  Martha's  Wood.  —  The  source 
of  this  dye-stulf  is  the  CrBsalinnia  echinata.  The  best  is 
imported  from  ISlicaragua,  and  an  inferior  kind  from  Sierra 
Nevada. 

Peachwood,  sapanwood,  and  Lima  wood,  all  give  very 
similar  shades  of  colour. 

Persian  Berries.  Syn.  Yellow  Berries.  French 
Berries.  Avignon  Berries.  Berries. — The  berries  or 
fruit  of  different  species  of  Ehamnus,  growing  in  Persia, 
the  Levant,  Southern  France,  and  Hungary.  The  Persian 
berries,  wdiich  are  the  most  valuable,  are  stated  to  be  the 
product  of  the  Rhamnus  amygdalinus.  Two  varieties  of  these 
berries  are  met  with  in  commerce — the  larger,  a  bright 
olive-coloured  berry,  which  is  gathered  before  being  ripe,  and 
a  smaller,  shrivelled,  deep  brown  kind,  which  are  not  removed 
from  the  branches  until  some  time  after  they  have  reached 
maturity.  The  yellow  colouring  matter  of  these  berries  is 
chryso-rhamnin  which  occurs  in  golden  yellow  crystals. 
These,  when  boiled  in  water,  are  resolved  into  xantho-rhamniriy 
a  substance  of  an  olive  yellow  colour.  According  to  Bolley, 
chryso-rhamnin  is  identical  with  quercethi.  Persian  berries 
are  chiefly  used  for  dyeing  morocco  leather,  yellow.  Cloth, 
previously  mordanted  with  alum,  tartar,  or  protochloride  of 
tin  is  also  dyed  yellow,  whilst  with  sulphate  of  copper  they 
give  an  olive,  and  with  sulphate  of  iron  an  olive-green  colour. 

Purree.  Sy7i.  Indian  Yellow. — This  yellow  dye-stuff, 
imported  from  China  and  India,  is  of  doubtful  origin,  and  is 
more  largely  used  by  artists  than  by  dyers.  Some  writers 
suppose  it  to  be  derived  from  an  animal  source.  According 
to  the  researches  of  Stenhouse  and  Erdmann,  purree  chiefly 
consists  of  purreic  acid,  a  strongly  tinctorial  substance,  com- 
bined with  magnesium. 


158 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Quercitron  Bark.  Syn.  Bark. — This  yellow  dye  material 

is  the  inner  bark  of  the  Quercus  tinctoria,  Quercus  nigra,  or 
Quercus  citrina,  a  species  of  oak,  a  native  of  America,  grow- 
ing more  particularly  in  Pennsylvania,  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

Qitercitrin,  the  pigment  of  quercitron  bark,  is  a  neutral 
substance  which,  when  treated  with  dilute  acids,  yields 
quercetin,  a  substance  of  a  lemon-yellow  colour,  which  occurs 
in  commerce  under  the  name  of  Jlavine.  With  picric  acid, 
quercitron  bark  affords  a  magnificent  yellow  dye. 

Rhubarb. — The  root  of  common  rhubarb  contains  a 
yellow  colouring  principle,  termed  rJiein  or  cliryso'phaniG  acid, 
which  is  soluble  in  boiling  achohol  and  ether,  from  which  it 
crystallizes  in  golden  yellow  crystals  of  a  metallic  appear- 
ance. With  alkalies  it  produces  a  reddish-brown  coloured 
liquid. 

Sandal  Wood. — This  is  the  wood  of  the  Pterocarjous 
santaliims,  an  Indian  tree.  It  is  imported  in  logs, 
which  are  of  a  deep  red  colour  externally,  and  a  bright 
red  internally.  The  colouring  principle  of  sandal  wood 
resides  in  a  resinoid  body  named  santalin,  which  appears  to 
be  the  oxidation  product  of  a  colourless  body  named  santal. 
Santalin  is  also  found  in  barwood,  the  source  of  which  is 
Bajyhia  nitida,  an  African  tree.  According  to  Bancroft,  if 
wool  be  mordanted  with  alum  and  tartar,  and  then  dyed  in 
a  bath  of  sandal  wood  and  sumach,  it  takes  a  reddish-yellow 
colour. 

Safflower.  Syn.  Bastard  Saffron.  Dyers'  Saffron. — 
The  dye-stuff  to  which  this  name  is  given,  consists  of  the 
dried  florets  of  Carthamus  tinctorius,  a  thistle-like  plant, 
cultivated  in  Spain,  Egypt,  the  Levant,  and  in  some  parts 
of  Germany.  Safflower  contains  two  colouring  principles — 
a  yellow  and  a  red  one.  The  latter,  which  is  the  tinctorial 
agent  of  the  plant,  is  called  carthamin.  The  yellow  is 
removed  by  water  and  is  rejected.     The  red  is  easily  dis- 


DYE  STUFFS. 


159 


solved  out  from  the  florets  by  weak  solutions  of  the  carbonated 
alkalies,  and  is  again  precipitated  on  the  addition  of  an  acid. 
Safflower  is  employed  for  dyeing  silk,  to  which  it  imparts  a 
brilliant  but  very  fugitive  colour. 

Saffron. — Saffron  is  the  prepared  stigmata  or  stigmas  of 
the  Crocus  sativus,  or  saffron  crocus.  There  are  two  principal 
varieties  of  saffron  known  in  commerce  :  hay  saffron,  and 
cake  saffron.  Hay  saffron  consists  of  the  stigmas  with  part 
of  the  styles,  carefully  separated  from  the  other  part  of  the 
flowers,  and  then  dried  by  a  very  gentle  heat.  Cake  saffron 
is  the  last  kind  compressed  into  a  cake,  after  it  has  been 
softened  by  the  fire  and  afterwards  dried.  Saffron  is  very 
largely  and  constantly  adulterated.  The  chief  sophisticants 
are  safflower,  marigold,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  Saffron  owes 
its  colour  to  crocin,  a  glucoside. 

Turmeric. — This  dye-stuff  is  the  dried  rhizome  or  under- 
ground stem  of  the  Curcuma  longa,  and  the  Curcuma  rotunda, 
a  plant  growing  in  India,  Java,  and  Ceylon.  The  finest 
kinds  come  from  the  latter  island.  Curcumin,  the  colour- 
ing principle  of  turmeric  occurs  as  a  brownish  yellow  mass. 
It  dyes  cotton  without  a  mordant.  It  gives  a  golden  yellow 
to  wool,  and  an  orange  tinge  to  scarlet.  It  is,  however,  a 
very  fugitive  dye. 

Weld. — Weld  consists  of  the  dried  herbs  and  stems  of 
the  Reseda  luteola,  a  native  of  the  South  of  France. 
Luteolin,  the  colouring  matter  of  weld,  is  a  substance  of 
considerable  durability,  and  when  sublimed  condenses  in 
yellow  needles.  The  decoction  of  weld  imparts  a  rich  yellow 
to  goods  mordanted  with  alum,  tartar,  or  chloride  of  tin. 

Woad.  Syn.  Dyer's  Woad  ;  Pastel,  Er. — The  Isatis 
tinctoria.  To  prepare  them  for  the  dyer,  the  leaves  of  the 
plant  are  partially  dried  and  ground  to  a  paste,  which  is 
made  into  balls  ;  these  are  placed  in  heaps,  and  occasionally 
sprinkled  with  water,  to  promote  the  fermentation  ;  when 


i6o 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


this  is  finished,  the  woad  is  allowed  to  fall  down  into 
lumps,  which  are  afterwards  reground  and  made  into  cakes 
for  sale.  The  woad  thus  prepared  is  mixed  with  boihng 
water,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  hours  in  a  closed 
vessel,  about  i-2oth  its  weight  of  newly  slaked  lime  being 
added  to  it.  The  mixture  is  then  digested  at  a  moderate 
temperature,  and  stirred  every  three  or  four  hours,  when  a 
new  fermentation  begins  ;  a  blue  froth  rises  to  the  surface, 
and  the  liquor,  though  it  appears  itself  of  a  reddish  colour, 
dyes  woollens  of  a  green  which,  like  the  green  from  indigo, 
changes  in  the  air  to  a  blue.  It  is  said  this  process  does  not 
succeed  well  on  the  small  scale.  Woad  is  now  mostly  used 
in  combination  with  indigo.  Fifty  lbs.  of  woad  are  reckoned 
equal  to  i  lb.  of  indigo. 

By  increasing  the  proportion  of  alum  or  red-liquor,  the 
colour  verges  on  purple ;  and  by  employing  a  little  acetate 
of  iron,  or  green  copperas,  the  darker  shades  of  blue  are  pro- 
duced. Verdigris,  blue  vitriol,  and  alkalies,  turn  it  more  on 
the  blue  ;  whilst  a  mordant  of  tin  imparts  a  violet  cast. 

Coal-Tar  Colours. — The  old  synonym  of  aniline 
colours  is  hardly  now  applicable,  as  these  only  form  a  portion 
of  the  colours  obtained  from  Tar.  Coal-tar  consists  of  the 
oily  fluid  obtained  in  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal, 
during  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  illuminating  gas,  and 
collected  in  a  tank  from  the  hydraulic  main  and  con- 
densers. The  composition  of  coal-tar  is  highly  complex,  the 
most  important  constituents,  being,  however,  benzol,  toluol, 
naphthalene,  anthracene  and  carbolic  acid.  Naphtha,  which 
is  one  of  a  series  of  homologous  hydrocarbons  obtained  by 
distilling  coal-tar,  yields,  by  rectification,  between  i8o°  and 
250°  Fahr.  (82°  and  121°  C),  an  almost  colourless  liquid,  the 
benzol  of  commerce.  By  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids  on  benzol,  nitro-benzol,  a  heavy  oily  liquid  with 
an  odour  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  is  obtained.    In  commerce 


DYE  STUFFS. 


i6i 


this  substance  is  made  in  large  cast-iron  pots,  fitted  with  tight 
covers,  and  provided  with  stirrers  worked  by  steam  povv^er. 
By  means  of  pipes  the  reagents  are  admitted,  and  the 
nitrous  fumes  a,re  carried  off,  v/hile  the  nitro-benzol  and  the 
spent  reagents  are  drawn  off  from  the  bottom.  The  entire 
charge  of  benzol  is  first  placed  in  the  vessels,  and  the  mixed 
acids  are,  as  the  reaction  is  very  energetic,  cautiously  run  in, 
the  whole  being  well  stirred  throughout.  When  finished, 
the  contents  are  drawn  off,  and  the  nitro-benzol  collected, 
washed  with  water,  and  finally  washed  with  a  weak  solution 
of  soda.  Nitro-benzol  is  converted  into  anihne  in  a  similar 
apparatus,  only  provided  with  the  means  of  admitting  a 
current  of  superheated  steam,  and  condensing  the  anihne  as  it 
distils  over.  In  the  vessel  iron  borings  are  placed,  and  acetic 
acid  and  nitro-benzol  cautiously  run  in  as  the  reduction  is 
violent,  stirring  well  all  the  time.  A  current  of  superheated 
steam  is  passed  through,  and  the  aniline  collected  as  it  distils 
over,  as  a  pale,  sherry-coloured,  oily  liquid,  boiling  at  360'' 
Fahr.  (182°  Cent.),  and  of  sp.  gr.  1-02. 

Aniline.  CgH^N.  Byn.  Phenylamine. — A  peculiar  vola- 
tile organic  base  first  noticed  by  Unverdorbsn  in  empy- 
reumatic  bone-oil,  and  afterwards  obtained  by  Runge  from 
coal-tar,  and  by  Fritzsche,  Zinin,  A.  W.  Hofmann,  and 
others,  as  a  product  of  various  reactions,  processes,  and 
decompositions,  particularly  those  attending  the  destructive 
distillation  of  nitrogenous  organic  bodies.  Anihne  is  now 
invariably  obtained,  on  the  large  scale,  indirectly  from 
coal-tar,  from  the  naphtha,  or,  more  correctly,  from  the 
nitro-benzol,  of  which  this  is  the  source.  The  following  are 
the  leading  commercial  and  experimental  processes  : — 

I.  From  Coal-Tar.— The  aniline  present  in  coal-tar  may 
be  obtained  by  washing  the  crude  naphtha  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  the  clear  portion  of  the  liquid  (containing  the 
hydrochlorates  of  the  bases  present)  is  then  decanted  and 

M 


l62 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


carefully  evaporated  over  an  open  fire  until  acrid  fumes 
begin  to  be  disengaged,  wlien  it  is  again  decanted  or 
filtered ;  the  clear  liquor,  or  filtrate,  is  next  treated  witli 
caustic  soda  or  milk  of  line  in  excess,  by  which  the  bases  are 
liberated  under  the  form  of  a  brownish  oil ;  the  v/hole  of 
the  resulting  mixture  is  now  submitted  to  distillation,  the 
portion  which  passes  over  at  or  about  360°  Fahr.  (182°  Cent.), 
and  which  consists  chiefly  of  crude  aniline,  being  collected 
separately ;  the  product  is  purified  by  rectification  at  the 
same  temperature,  and,  lastly,  by  fresh  treatment  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  careful  distillation  with  excess  of 
soda,  or  milk  of  lime,  as  before. 

2.  From  NiTRO-BENZOL  : — «.  (Zinin.)  An  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  nitro-benzol,  after  saturation  with  ammonia,  is  treated 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  until,  after  some  hours,  a  pre- 
cipitation of  sulphur  takes  place ;  the  brown  liquid  is  then 
repeatedly  saturated  with  fresh  sulphuretted  hydrogen,, 
until  no  more  sulphur  separates,  the  reaction  being  aided  by 
occasionally  heating  or  distilling  the  mixture  ;  an  excess  of 
acid  is  next  added,  and,  after  filtering  the  liquid,  and  the 
removal  of  the  alcohol  and  unaltered  nitro-benzol  by  ebulli- 
tion or  distillation,  the  residue  is  lastly  distilled  with  caustic 
potash,  in  excess.  The  aniline  found  in  the  receiver  may  be 
rendered  pure  by  forming  it  into  oxalate  of  aniline,  repeat- 
edly crystallizing  the  salt  from  alcohol,  and  finally  distilling 
it  with  excess  of  caustic  soda  as  before. 

The  following  is  a  cheaper  and  more  convenient  process, 
and  is  the  only  method  used  on  a  large  scale  : — 

5.  (M,  Bechamps).  From  I^itro-benzol  by  distillation  with 
a  mixture  of  iron-filings  and  acetic  acid  (the  acetic  acid  is 
now  more  economically  replaced  by  hydi-ochloric  acid  or  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  iron). 

The  liquor  found  in  the  receiver  consists  of  aniline  and 
water,  from  Avhich  the  first,  forming  the  lower  portion,  is 


DYE  STUFFS. 


163 


obtained,  after  sufficient  repose  in  a  separator.  A  very  spa- 
cious retort  must  be  employed  in  tlie  process,  as  the  mass 
swells  up  violently  ;  and  it  must  be  connected  with  the 
receiver,  by  means  of  a  condenser,  kept  in  good  action  by  a 
sufficient  flow  of  cold  water. 

The  a23paratus  for  carrying  out  Bechamp's  method  was 
devised  by  Nicholsox,  and  is  exhibited  in  the  subjoined 
plate. 

"  It.. consists  essentially  of  a  cast-iron  cylinder  (a)  of  10 
hectohtres  (220  gallons)  cubic  capacity.  A  stout  iron  tube  is 


Fig.  5. 


fitted  to  this  vessel,  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder.  The  upper  part  of  this  tube  is  connected  with 
the  machinery  G,  while  the  surface  of  the  tube  is  fitted  with 
steel  projections.  The  tube  serves  to  admit  steam,  as  well 
as  acting  as  a  stirring  apparatus.  Som.etimes,  instead  of 
this  tube,  a  solid  iron  axle  is  employed,  and  in  this  case 
there  is  a  separate  steampipe,  d.    Through  the  opening  at  k 

M  2 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


the  materials  for  making  aniline  are  put  into  the  apparatus, 
while  the  volatile  products  are  carried  off  through  E.  h  ser- 
ves for  emptying  and  cleaning  the  apparatus.  The  S-shaped 
tube  connected  with  the  vessel  b  acts  as  a  safety  valve. 
When  it  is  intended  to  work  with  this  apparatus  there  is 
poured  into  it  through  k,  lo  kilos  of  acetic  acid  at  8°  B. 
(sp.  gr.  I '060),  previously  diluted  with  six  times  its  weight  of 
water ;  next  there  are  added  30  kilos  of  iron  filings,  or  cast 
iron  borings,  and  125  kilos  of  nitro-benzol,  and  immediately 
after  the  stirring  apparatus  is  set  in  motion.  The  reaction 
ensues  directly,  and  is  attended  by  a  considerable  evolution 
of  heat  and  vapours.  Gradually  more  iron  is  added  until 
the  quantity  amounts  to  180  kilos.  The  escaping  vapours 
are  condensed  in  f,  and  the  liquid  condensed  in  r  is  from 
time  to  time  poured  back  into  the  cylinder  a.  The  reduction 
is  finished  after  a  few  hours."* 

3.  From  Indigo. — Powdered  indigo  is  added  to  a  boiling 
and  highly  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  potash,  as  long 
as  it  dissolves  and  hydrogen  is  liberated,  the  resulting 
brownish-red  liquid  is  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  resi- 
duum is  submitted  to  destructive  distillation  in  a  retort. — 
Prod.  18  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  indigo  employed. 

4.  By  fusing,  with  proper  precautions,  a  mixture  of  isa- 
tin  and  hydrate  of  potassium  (both  in  powder).  A  retort 
connected  with  a  well-cooled  receiver,  is  employed  as  the 
apparatus.  The  interest  attaching  to  these  two  methods 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  aniline  thus  obtained  is  abso- 
lutely free  from  toluidine,  which  is  always  present  in  that 
prepared  from  coal-tar  benzol. 

5.  From  anthranilic  acid  mixed  with  powdered  glass  or 
sand,  and  rapidly  heated  in  a  retort. 


*  Wagner's  "  Chemical  Technology,"  edited  by  W.  Ceookes,  F.E.S. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


165 


6.  By  treating  an  alcoholic  solution  of  benzine  with  a  little 
zinc  and  hydrochloric  acid. 

7.  By  heating  phenyl-alcohol  with  ammonia  in  sealed 
tubes. 

Many  other  reducing  agents  have  been  proposed  for  the 
conversion  of  nitro-benzol  into  aniline,  such  as  arsenite  of 
sodium,  powdered  zinc,  &c.,  but  on  the  large  scale  they  have 
all  been  found  inferior  to  the  process  of  Bechamp.  Kremer's 
process  consists  in  heating  one  part  of  nitro-benzol  in  a  pro- 
per ajDparatus  with  five  of  w^ater  and  two  and  a  half  of 
zinc  dust.  When  the  reaction  is  completed,  the  aniUne, 
amounting  to  about  65  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  benzol, 
is  distilled  off  in  a  current  of  steam. 

Aniline  is  a  thin,  oily,  colourless  liquid,  with  a  faixitly 
vinous  odour,  and  a  hot  and  aromatic  taste,  miscible  in  all 
proportions  with  alcohol  and  ether,  very  slightly  soluble  in 
water,  neutral  to  ordinary  test-paper,  but  exhibiting  an  alka- 
line reaction  to  dahlia-petal  infusion  and  paper.  It  dissolves 
camphor,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  and  coagulates  albumen, 
possesses  a  high  refractive  power,  and  precipitates  the  oxides 
of  iron,  zinc,  and  alumina,  from  solutions  of  their  salts, 
and  neutralizes  the  acids  like  ammonia.  With  the  acids  it 
forms  numerous  crystallizable  compounds  of  great  beauty, 
which  are  easily  formed,  and  are  precisely  analogous  to  the 
corresponding  salts  of  ammonia.  These,  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  acquire  a  rose  colour,  in  many  cases  gradually  passing 
into  brown. 

Tests. — I.  Chromic  acid  gives  a  deep  greenish  or  bluish- 
black  precipitate  with  aniline  and  its  salts.  2.  Hypo- 
chlorite of  lime  strikes  an  extremely  beautiful  violet  colour, 
which  is  soon  destroyed.  3.  The  addition  of  two  or  three 
drops  of  nitric  acid  to  anhydrous  aniline  produces  a  fine  blue 
colour,  which,  on  the  apphcation  of  heat,  passes  into  yellow, 
and  a  violent  reaction  ensues,  sometimes  followed  by  explo- 


i66 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


sion.  4.  With  bichloride  of  platinum  it  yields  a  double 
salt,  the  platino-chloride  of  aniline,  corresponding  to  the 
corresponding  salt  of  ammonia.  These  reactions  distinguish 
it  from  all  other  substances. 

Commercial  aniline  is  a  mixture  consisting  in  great  part 
of  aniline,  paratoluidine,  and  orthotoluidine  in  variable 
proportions.  In  addition  it  contains  small  amounts  of 
metatoluidine,  nitro-benzol,  odorine,  &c.,  but  for  all  practical 
purposes  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  mixture  of  aniline  and 
toluidine.  As  it  is  obtained  from  a  portion  of  the  light 
naphtha,  boiling  between  certain  temperatures,  it  will  vary 
according  to  the  naphtha  from  which  it  is  made. 

In  order  to  distinguish  betw^een  various  samples  of  com- 
mercial aniline,  Heimann  submits  them  to  fractional  distilla- 
tion and  compares  the  results.  He  places  100  c.c.  of  the 
sample  to  be  tested  in  a  retort  fitted  with  a  thermometer 
and  heated  by  means  of  an  oil-bath.  The  liquid,  as  it  distils, 
is  received  in  a  narrow  graduated  cylinder,  and  the  amount 
that  passes  over  between  every  5°  Cent.  (41°  Fahr.)  is  noted. 

In  order  to  obtain  standards  for  comparison  he  lii'st  dis- 
tilled a  sample  of  light  aniline,  then  one  of  heavy  aniline  ; 


Light 

Centigeade. 

100 
Heavy 

90 

80 

60 

so 

2S 

0 

0 

10 

IS 

20 

40 

So 

75 

100 

Below  180° 

84 

7 

2^ 

54 

7 

54 

... 

i8o°— 185° 
185°— 190° 

54 

50 

\. 

'I 

44 

24 

34 

34 

564 

% 

554 

74 

44 

i90°-i95° 
195°— 200° 
200° — 205° 

5 

15 

33 

42 

17 

8 

9 

19 

36 

18 

... 

4i 

1*6 

10 

16 

39 

205° — 2TO° 
210° — 215° 

... 

■■ 

34 

8 

19 

44 

Residue 

"z\ 

4 

4 

"84 

'34 

7 

6i 

5 

5. 

and  afterwards  mixtures  of  the  two  in  varying  proportions. 
In  the  foregoing  table  the  results  are  given. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


167 


In  examining  commercial  aniline  it  is  usual  to  determine 
tlie  amount  of  insoluble  oil  which  separates  on  agitating  a 
sa.mple  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  For  a  detailed 
account  of  the  methods  of  preparing  aniline  commercially, 
a,nd  of  the  dyes  obtained  therefrom,  see  "  Dictionnaire  de 
Chimie,"  par  A.  Wurtz. 

Aniline  Black  is  formed  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  all  colours  which  are  produced  by  the  action  of 
powerful  oxidizers  on  anihne.  In  the  case  of  mauve,  for 
instance,  the  black  by-product  amounts  to  as  much  as  thirty 
times  the  weight  of  the  ^^wyq,  colour.  There  are  so  many 
methods  of  preparing  it  that  the  two  following  may  be  men- 
tioned as  examples  : — i.  "  Dissolve  20  parts  of  potassium 
chlorate,  40  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper,  1 6  parts  of  chloride 
of  ammonium,  and  40  parts  of  aniline  hydroclilorate,  in 
500  parts  of  water,  warming  the  liquid  to  about  60°,  and 
then  removing  it  from  the  water-bath.  In  about  three 
minutes  the  solution  froths  up  and  gives  off  vapours  which 
.strongly  attack  the  breathing  organs.  If  the  mass  does 
not  become  quite  black  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  hours  it  is 
again  heated  to  60°  Fahr.  (i5"5°  C.),  and  then  exposed  in 
an  open  place  for  a  day  or  two,  and  afterwards  carefully 
washed  out  till  no  salts  are  found  in  the  filtrate.  For 
.use  in  printing,  the  black  paste  is  mixed  with  a  somewhat 
large  quantity  of  albumen,  and  the  goods  after  printing  are 
strongly  steamed.  The  paste  can  be  pressed  into  moulds, 
and  used  as  a  substitute  for  Indian  ink."* 

2.  "  Mix  equal  weights  of  aniline  (containing  toluidine), 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  potassium  chlorate,  with  a  minute 
quantity  of  cupric  chloride  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water,  and  leave  the  mixture  to  evaporate  spontaneously, 
when  a  black  powder  will  be  obtained. "t 


A.  MULLER. 


+  Eheixeck. 


i63 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Aniline  Blue,  or  Bleu  de  Lyons. — This  dye  is  prepared 
by  heating  a  mixture  of  magenta,  acetate  of  sodium,  and 
aniline,  in  iron  pots,  provided  with  stirrers,  &c.,  in  an  oil 
bath,  to  3 70°  Fahr.  (188°  Cent.)  When  a  good  blue  has  been 
obtained,  the  heat  is  removed,  and  the  thick  treacle-like 
fluid  purified.  This  is  effected,  for  the  commoner  varieties, 
by  treating  the  crude  product  with  hydrochloric  acid,  to 
dissolve  out  the  excess  of  aniline,  and  the  various  red  and 
purple  impurities. 

The  better  quahties,  however,  termed  Opal  Blues,  are 
prepared  by  heating  purified  magenta  base  with  pure  aniline 
and  a  certain  quantity  of  acetic  acid  (this "  acid  is  sometimes 
replaced  by  benzoic  or  naphthoic  acid).  The  crude  product 
thus  obtained  is  mixed  with  methlylated  spirit,  and  poured 
into  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  colour 
that  is  precipitated  is  then  collected  on  filters,  washed  and 
dried.  This  blue,  like  magenta,  is  a  salt  of  a  colourless  base, 
which  has  been  named  Triphenylrosaniline,  CggHg^N^,  or 
C2QH^g(CgHg),]Srg.  Aniline  blue,  or  Lyons  blue,  is  sent  into 
the  market  either  as  a  coarse  powder  of  a  coppery  lustre,  or 
in  alcoholic  solution,  as  it  is  insoluble  in  water. 

Mr.  Nicholson,  by  treating  Lyons  blue  in  the  same 
manner  as  indigo  is  converted  into  sulpindigotic  acid,  suc- 
ceeded in  rendering  it  soluble,  and  thus  prepared  the 
colours  known  as  Soluble  Blues. 

l^icholson's  Blue  is  obtained  by  digesting  triphenyl- 
rosaniline or  monosulphonic  acid*  with  a  quantity  of  soda-lye 
not  quite  sufficient  for  saturation,  filtering  the  solution  and 
evaporating.  It  is  dried  at  100°  Fahr.  (38°  C).  Wool 
dipped  into  a  hot  aqueous  solution  of  Nicholson's  blue, 

*  This  acid  is  made  by  dissolving  IripheDylrosaniline  hydrochloride 
in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  heating  the  solution  for  five  or  six  hoiu's. 
On  the  addition  of  water,  the  acid  is  obtained  as  a  dark  blue, 
precipitate,  and  dried  at  loo^iFahr.  (38°  C). 


DYE  STUFFS. 


169 


especially  if  borax,  or  water-glass  be  added,  extracts  it  in 
a  colourless  state,  and  holds  it  so  fast  that  it  cannot  be 
washed  out  with  v/ater,  but  on  dipping  the  wool  thus 
prepared  into  an  acid,  the  salt  is  decomposed,  and  the  colour- 
ing matter  is  set  free. 

Mauve,  the  first-discovered  coal-tar  or  aniline  colour^ 
was  obtained  by  Mr.  Perkin  during  some  experiments 
directed  towards  the  artificial  formation  of  quinine,  and  was 
also  first  practically  manufactured  by  Mr.  Perkin.  Com- 
mercially, mauve  is  made  as  follows  :  Aniline  and  sulphuric 
acid,  in  23ro23er  proportions,  are  dissolved  in  water  in  a  vat  by 
aid  of  heat,  and  when  cold  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potassium  is  added,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for  a  day 
or  two,  when  a  black  precipitate  is  obtained,  which,  after 
being  collected  on  shallow  filters,  is  washed  and  well  dried. 
This  black  resinous  substance  is  digested  with  dilute 
methylated  spirit  in  a  suitable  apparatus  to  dissolve  out  the 
mauve,  and  the  spirit  is  distilled  off.  The  mauve  is  pre- 
cipitated from  the  aqueous  solution  left  behind  by  hydrate  of 
sodium,  and  after  washing  drained  to  a  paste. 

The  amount  of  mauve  thus  obtained  is  small  in  com- 
parison with  the  raw  material,  coal  tar ;  since  100  lbs.  of  coal 
yield  10  lbs.  12  oz.  of  coal  tar;  8|  oz.  of  mineral  naphtha, 
2f  oz.  of  benzol;  4:^  oz.  of  nitro-benzol,  2|  oz.  of  anihne, 
and  \  oz.  of  mauve.  Mauve  is  usually  sent  into  the  market 
in  paste  or  solution,  the  expense  of  the  crystals  being  heavy, 
and  offering  no  corresponding  advantages. 

Other  salts  than  the  bichromate  of  potassium  have  been 
employed  to  convert  anihne  into  mauve,  such  as  chloride  of 
copper,  permanganate  of  potassium,  &c. ;  but  experience  has 
shown  none  to  possess  the  same  advantages  as  the  bichromate 
of  potassium. 

Mauveine,  the  organic  base  of  mauve  or  aniline  purple, 
is  a  black  crystalline  powder,  yielding  a  dull  violet  solution. 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


The  moment,  however,  manveine  is  brought  into  contact  with 
an  acid,  it  turns  a  magnificent  purple  colour.  The  salts  of 
mauveine  form  beautiful  cr3^stals,  possessing  a  splendid  green 
metallic  lustre. 

Aniline  Brown.  Syn.  Habana  Brown. — De  Laire 
prepares  this  pigment  by  heating  to  a  temperature  of 
464^  Fahr.  (240°  Cent.),  a  mixture  of  aniline  violet  and 
aniline  blue  wdth  hydrochlorate  of  aniline.  The  product 
thus  obtained  dissolves  in  water,  acids,  and  alcohol,  and  can 
be  used  at  once  for  dyeing  purposes. 

Bismark's  Brov/n  is  made  by  fusing  fuchsin  with  hydro- 
chlorate  of  aniline. 

Dahlia. — This  is  prepared  from  mauve  and  iodide  of  ethyl, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Hofmann  violets,  and  is  a  purple- 
red  violet.  It  is  a  good  colour,  but  the  expense  precludes 
its  general  use. 

Aniline  Pink,  a  very  clear  and  brilliant  dye,  is  obtained 
by  the  action  of  binoxide  of  lead  and  acetic  acid  on  mauve ; 
this  colour  is  also  formed  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  last-mentioned  dye,  but  on  account  of  its  being  dis- 
solved in  so  large  a  quantity  of  liquor  it  is  lost.  "Willm,  in 
1 86 1,  obtained  another  red  colouring  matter,  which  he 
got  by  boiling  an  acetic  solution  of  mauveine  with  binoxide 
of  barium. 

Aniline  Grey. — Mauveine  paste  is  dissolved  in  rather 
more  than  its  own  weight  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  two- 
thirds  of  its  weight  of  aldehyde  is  then  added.  After  being- 
stirred,  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  four  or  five  hours;  it  is 
then  poured  into  water,  and  the  solution,  after  it  has  been 
filtered,  yields  the  grey  colouring  matter  on  the  addition  of  salt. 

Sckeurer-Kestner  obtained  a  yellow  dye  by  the  action 
of  tin  on  a  solution  of  mauveine,  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

Aniline  Blue  for  Printing. — Blumer-Zweefel  gives 
the  following  process  for  preparing  this  colour  : — "  Mix 


DYE  STUFFS. 


171 


100  parts  of  starch  witli  i,coo  parts  of  water,  and  add 
to  it,  Avliile  warm,  40  parts  of  potassium  cliiorate,  3 
to  4  parts  of  ferrous  sulphate,  and  10  parts  of  sal 
ammoniac.  The  Avell-mixed  paste,  when  quite  cokl,  is 
mixed  with  70  parts  of  anihne  hydrochloride,  or  an 
equivalent  quantity  of  tartrate,  and  immediately  used. 
The  printed  goods  are  oxidized,  then  passed  through  warm 
or  faintly  alkaline  water,  whereby  the  Ijlue  colour  is 
developed." 

Another  colouring  matter,  called  Paris  blue  or  Bleu  de 
Paris,  was  obtained  by  heating  stannic  chloride  with  aniline 
for  thirty  hours  at  a  temperature  of  356°  Fahr.  (180"  C). 
It  is  a  fine  purs  blue,  soluble  in  water,  and  crystallizing  in 
large  blue  needles  with  a  coppery  lustre. 

Aniline  Green.^ — When  treated  with  chlorate  of  potas- 
sium, to  which  a  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid  has  been 
added,  aniline  assumes  a  rich  indigo-blue  colour.  The  same 
result  occurs  if  the  aniline  be  treated  v>dth  a  solution  of 
chlorous  acid.  Similar  blues  have  been  obtained  by  Messrs. 
Grace  Calvert,  Lowe  &  Clift.  Most  of  these  blues  possess 
the  property,  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  acids,  of  acquir- 
ing a  green  tint,  called  Emeraldine.  Dr.  Calvert  obtained 
this  colour  directly  upon  cloth,  by  printing  with  a  mixture 
of  an  aniline  salt  and  chlorate  of  potassium,  and  allowing 
it  to  dry.  In  about  twelve  hours  the  green  colour  is 
developed.  This  colour  may  be  converted  into  blue  l)y 
being  passed  through  a  hot  dilute  alkaline  solution,  or 
through  a  bath  of  boiling  soap. 

Saffranine. — This  dye-stuff  is  of  a  bright  red-rose  colour. 
Mene  says  it  ma}^  be  prepared  commercially  by  treatment  of 
heavy  aniline  oils  successively  v^^ith  nitrous  and  arsenic  acids ; 
or  2  parts  of  the  aniline  may  be  heated  with  i  of  ai'senie 
acid,  and  i  of  an  alkaline  nitrite  for  a  short  time,  to  200°  or 
212°  Fahr.  (95°-ioo°  C).     The  product  is  extracted  ^^ith 


172 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


boiling  water  neutralized  with  an  akali,  filtered,  and  the 
colour  thrown  down  by  common  salt. 

Magenta.  Syn.  Aniline  Eed,  Roseine,  Fuchsine, 
AzALEiNE,  SoLFERiNO,  Tyealine. — Yarious  processes  have 
been  proposed  and  patented  for  the  preparation  of  this  com- 
mercially important  coal-tar  colour.  Amongst  these  pro- 
cesses are — • 

1.  Gerber-Keller's,  patented  in  France,  October  29, 
ICS59.    By  this  the  aniline  is  treated  with  mercuric  nitrate. 

2.  Lauth  &  Depouilly  used  nitric  acid. 

3.  Medlock  (patent  dated  January,  i860),  Nicholson, 
and  GiRARD  &  De  Laire,  all  in  i860,  separately  patented 
the  use  of  arsenic  acid.  This  process,  being  the  one  now 
almost  exclusively  employed,  is  thus  described  in  Grace 
Calvert's  work,  "  Dyeing  and  Calico-Printing,"  edited  by 
Messrs.  Steniiouse  k  Groves  :  — "  The  manufacture  of 
magenta,  as  it  is  now  conducted  in  the  large  colour  vv^orks,  is 
a  comparatively  simple  process,  the  apparatus  employed  con- 
sisting of  a  large  cast-iron  pot  set  in  a  furnace,  provided  with 
means  for  carefully  regulating  the  heat.  It  is  furnished  with 
a  stirrer,  which  can  be  worked  by  hand  or  by  mechanical 
means,  the  gearing  for  the  stirrer  being  fixed  to  the  lid,  so 
that  by  means  of  a  crane  the  lid  may  be  removed,  together 
with  the  stirrer  and  gearing.  There  is  also  a  bent  tube  pass- 
ing through  the  lid  for  the  exit  of  the  vapours,  which  can  be 
easily  connected  or  disconnected  with  a  worm  at  pleasure ; 
lastly,  there  are  large  openings  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot, 
closed  by  suitable  stoppers,  so  that  the  charge  can  be  removed 
with  facility  as  soon  as  the  reaction  is  complete.  Into  this 
apparatus,  which  is  capable  of  holding  about  500  gallons,  a 
charge  of  2,740  lbs.  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  arsenic  acid, 
containing  72  per  cent,  of  the  anhydrous  acid,  is  introduced, 
together  with  1,600  lbs.  of  commercial  aniline.  The  aniline 
selected  for  this  purpose  should  contain  about  25  per  cent,  of 
toluidine. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


173 


"  After  the  materials  have  been  thoroughly  mixed  by  the 
stirrer  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  temperature  gradually 
raised  to  about  360°  Fahr.  (182°  C).  In  a  short  time  water 
begins  to  distil,  then  aniline  makes  its  appearance  along  with 
the  water,  and,  lastly,  aniline  alone  comes  over,  which  is  nearly 
pure,  containing,  as  it  does,  but  a  very  small  percentage  of 
toluidine.  The  operation  usually  lasts  about  eight  or  ten 
hours,  during  which  time  about  170  gallons  of  liquid  pass 
over,  and  are  condensed  in  the  worm  attached  to  the 
apparatus;  of  this  about  150  lbs.  are  aniline.  The  temper- 
ature should  not  exceed  380°  Fahr.  (193°  C.)  at  any  period 
during  the  operation.  When  this  is  complete,  steam  is  blovv^i 
in  through  a  tube,  in  order  to  sweep  out  the  last  traces  of  the 
free  aniline,  and  boiling  water  is  gradually  introduced  in 
quantity  safiicient  to  convert  the  contents  into  a  homogenous 
liquid.  When  this  occurs  the  liquid  is  run  out  of  the 
openings  at  the  bottom,  into  cisterns  provided  with  agitators  ; 
here  more  boiling  v/ater  is  added,  in  the  proportion  of  300 
gallons  to  every  600  lbs.  of  crude  magenta,  and  also  6  lbs.  of 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  mass  is  then  boiled  for  four  or  five 
hours  by  means  of  steam  pipes,  the  agitators  being  kept  in 
constant  motion.  The  solution  of  hydrochloride,  arsenite, 
and  arseniate  of  rosaniline  thus  obtained  is  filtered  through 
woollen  cloth,  and  720  lbs.  of  common  salt  added  to  the 
liquid  (which  is  kept  boiling)  for  each  600  lbs.  of  crude 
magenta.  By  this  means  the  whole  of  the  rosaniline  is 
converted  into  hydrochloride,  which,  being  nearly  insoluble 
in  the  strong  solution  of  arseniate  and  arsenite  of  sodium 
produced  in  the  double  decomposition,  separates  and  rises  to 
the  surface ;  a  further  quantity  is  deposited  from  the  sahne 
solution  on  allowing  it  to  cool  and  stand  for  some  time.  In 
order  to  purify  the  crude  rosaniline  hydrochloride  it  is 
washed  mth  a  small  quantity  of  water,  redissolved  in  boiling- 
water  slightly  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  filtered,  and 
allowed  to  crystalize." 


174 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Ill  the  treatment  of  aniline  with  arsenic  acid,  violet  and 
blue  dyes  are  also  formed.  The  production  of  such  has 
been  patented  by  Girard  k  De  Laire. 

4.  Laurent  &  Casthelaz  have  obtained  aniline  red 
direct  from  benzol,  without  the  preliminary  isolation  of 
aniline.  Nitro-benzol  is  treated  with  twice  its  weiglit  of 
iron  finely  divided,  and  half  its  weight  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  colouring  matter  obtained  by  this 
process  is  said  to  be  inferior  in  beauty  to  that  procured 
from  aniline. 

5.  Regard  Brothers  include  in  their  patent  the  ebullition 
of  aniline  with  stannous,  stannic,  mercurous,  and  mercuric 
sulphates,  with  ferric  and  uranic  nitrates  and  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  with  stannic  and  mercuric  bromides. 

6.  Dale  k  Card's  (patent  dated  i860)  consists  in  the 
treatment  of  aniline  or  hydrochlorate  of  aniline,  with 
nitrate  of  lead. 

7.  Smith  claims  the  ebullition  of  aniline  with  per- 
chloride  of  antimony,  or  the  action  of  antimonic  acid, 
peroxide  of  bismuth,  stannic,  ferric,  mercuric,  and  cupric 
oxides,  upon  hydrochlorate  or  sulphate  of  aniline,  at  the 
temperature  of  iSo*^. 

Coupier's  process  for  the  manufacture  of  magenta  with- 
out the  use  of  arsenic  acid  is  as  follows  : — He  heats  together 
pure  aniline,  nitrotoluene,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  finely  divided  metallic  iron,  to  a  temperature  of 
about  400°  Fahr.  (204°  C).  for  several  hours.  The  pasty 
mixture  soon  solidifies  to  a  friable  mass  resembling  crude 
aniline  red. 

Dr.  HoFMAN  and  Mr.  Nicholson  have  demonstrated 
that  pure  aniline,  from  whatever  source  obtained,  is  in- 
capable of  furnishing  a  red  dye,  but  that  it  does  so  when 
mixed  with  toluidine — toluidine  by  itself  being  equally 
incapable  of  yielding  it. 


DYE  STUFFS, 


175 


Magenta  consists  of  brilliant  crystals,  having  a  beautiful 
golden-green  metallic  lustre,  and  soluble  in  water  to  an 
intense  purplish-red  solution.  It  is  a  salt  of  a  colourless 
base,  rosaniline,  which  is  prepared  from  magenta  by  boiling 
with  hydrate  of  potassium,  and  allowing  the  solution  to  cool, 
w^hen  it  crystallizes  out  in  colourless  crystals,  having  the 
formulae  0,0^,^^,0. 

Sugar,  previously  dyed  with  magenta,  is  sometimes  used 
as  an  adulterant  of  crystallized  magenta.  The  best  method 
of  testing  magenta  is  to  make  a  comparative  dyeing  experi- 
ment with  the  sample  under  examination,  and  with  one  of 
known  purity,  using  white  woollen  yarn. 

From  magenta  or  hydrochlorate  of  rosanihne  a  large 
number  of  colouring  matters  are  produced,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  will  be  briefly  described  below. 

Aldehyde  Green. — Prepared  by  dissolving  i  part  of 
magenta  in  3  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  i 
part  of  water,  adding  by  degrees  i|  parts  of  aldehyde,  and 
heating  the  whole  on  a  water-bath  until  a  drop  put  in 
water  turns  a  fine  blue.  It  is  then  poured  into  a  large 
quantity  of  hot  water  containing  3  parts  of  hyposulphite 
of  sodium,  boiled  and  filtered.  The  filtrate  contains  the 
green. 

Iodine  Green. — Produced  during  the  manufacture  of 
the  HoFMANN  colours ;  is  used  for  dyeing  cotton  and  silk  ; 
its  colour  being  bluer  than  that  of  aldehyde  green,  it  is  more 
useful.  Iodine  green,  not  being  precipitated  by  carbonate 
of  sodium,  is  usually  sold  in  alcoholic  solution. 

Perkins  Green. — This  is  also  a  magenta  derivative,  as  it 
is  prepared  from  Britannia  violet.  It  was  much  used  at  one 
time,  as  it  is  comparatively  a  fast  colour. 

Britannia  Violet. — This  is  obtained  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  HoFMANN  violets,  by  acting  on  a  solution  of  magenta 
in  wood  spirit,  with  a  thick,  viscid  fluid  of  the  formula 


176 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


Cj^H^gBrg,  obtained  by  cautiously  acting  with  bromine  on 
oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  a  beautiful  violet,  capable  of  being 
manufactured  of  every  shade,  from  purple  to  blue,  and  was 
at  one  time  extensively  used. 

Hofmann  Violets. — On  a  large  scale  these  violets  are 
produced  in  deep  cast-iron  pots,  surrounded  by  a  steam 
jacket,  and  provided  with  a  lid,  having  a  perforation  for 
distilling  over  the  excess  of  reagents. 

These  vessels  are  charged  with  a  solution  of  magenta  in 
methylated  or  wood  spirit,  and  iodide  of  ethyl  or  methyl,  in 
proportions  according  to  the  shade  required,  and  the  whole 
heated  by  steam  for  five  or  six  hours,  when  the  excess  of 
alcohol  and  iodide  of  ethyl  is  distilled  over.  The  resulting 
product  is  dissolved  in  water,  filtered,  precipitated  with 
common  salt,  and  well  washed.  They  are  all  moderately 
fast  on  wool  and  silk,  although  less  so  on  cotton,  and,  as 
they  can  be  produced  in  nearly  every  shade  of  violet,  are  in 
great  use. 

Violet  Imperial. — If  the  action  of  the  aniline  and 
magenta  in  the  process  of  manufacturing  aniline  blue  be 
stopped  before  it  is  finished,  and  the  resulting  product  treated 
with  dilute  acid,  a  colouring  matter  called  violet  imperial  is 
obtained.  This  dye  is  now  replaced  by  the  Hofmann 
violets. 

Nicholson  obtains  another  violet,  Hegina  purple,  from 
aniline  red,  by  heating  it  in  a  suitable  apparatus  to  a 
temperature  between  300°  and  327°  Fahr.  (200°  and  215°  C). 
The  resulting  mass  is  exhausted  with  acetic  acid,  and  the 
deep  violet  solution  diluted  with  enough  alcohol  to  give  the 
dye  a  convenient  strength. 

The  following  processes  have  also  been  proposed  for  the 
production  of  aniline  violet : — 

I.  Williams. — Oxidation  of  an  aniline  salt  by  means  of 
a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium. 


DYE  STUFFS, 


177 


2.  Smith. — Oxidation  of  an  aniKne  salt  by  means  of  a 
solution  of  ferricyanide  of  potassium. 

3.  BoLLEY,  Beale,  cfeKiRKMANN. — Oxidation  of  a  cold  and 
dilute  solution  of  hydroclilorate  of  aniline,  by  means  of  a 
dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 

4.  Price. — Oxidation  of  a  salt  of  aniline  by  means  of  per- 
oxide of  lead  under  the  influence  of  an  acid. 

5.  Kay. — Oxidation  of  a  salt  of  aniline  in  an  aqueous 
solution  of  peroxide  of  manganese. 

6.  Smith. — Oxidation  of  a  salt  of  aniline  by  free  chlorine 
or  free  hypochiorous  acid. 

Benzyl  Violet  is  prepared  from  magenta,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Hofmann  violet,  but  the  iodide  of  methyl  is 
replaced  by  chloride  of  benzyl,  which  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  chlorine  on  toluol. 

Spiller's  Purple  is  a  shade  that  is  produced  by  the  action 
of  aniline  on  a  red  shade  Hofmann  violet. 

Naphthyl  Violet  is  obtained  by  heating  magenta  with 
naphthylamine. 

Aniline  Yellow. — Amongst  the  secondary  products 
obtained  during  the  preparation  of  aniline  red,  there  occurs 
a  well  defined  base  of  a  splendid  yellow  colour,  to  which  the 
name  chrysaniline  or  phosphine  has  been  given.  An  inferior 
quality  is  also  obtained  from  the  residues  after  the  magenta 
has  been  extracted  from  the  crude  product. 

Anthracen,  C^^H^^.  Anthracen  is  one  of  the  last  pro- 
ducts passing  over  in  the  dry  distillation  of  coal-tar.  Dr. 
Oalvert  says  it  is  found  most  abundantly  in  the  10  or  15 
per  cent.,  which  comes  over  between  the  temperature  at 
which  soft  pitch  is  produced,  and  that  at  which  hard  pitch 
is  formed." 

Coal-tar  contains  very  variable  quantities  of  anthracen, 
those  tars  procured  from  coals  which  are  richest  in  naphtha 
yielding  it  most  abundantly.    The  coals  of  South  Staffbrd- 

N 


178 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


sliire  give  the  largest  yield,  whilst  the  Newcastle  coals  give 
very  little. 

Gessert  prepares  anthracen  from  coal-tar  as  follows : — 
He  places  the  last  pasty  portions  (the  "  green  grease")  of 
the  coal-tar  distillation  (which  must  not  be  carried  beyond 
the  point  at  which  soft  pitch  is  formed)  first  in  a  centrifugal 
machine,  and  then  in  a  hydraulic  press  at  104°  Fahr.  (40°  C), 
or  subjects  the  mass  heated  to  86°  or  104°  Fahr.  (30°  or  40*^ 
C),  directly  to  pressure  in  a  filter-press.  The  pressed  mass 
consists  of  about  60  per  cent,  of  anthracen;  for  further 
purification  it  is  boiled  with  light  tar-oil  or  petroleum 
naphtha,  and  finally  heated  till  it  melts.  The  residue  con- 
tains 95  per  cent,  of  anthracen. 

The  following  method  for  the  purification  of  crude 
anthracen,  contaminated  with  oily  matters,  is  by  Schuller  : 
The  crude  anthracen  is  carefully  heated  to  commencing- 
ebullition  in  a  capacious  retort  connected  with  a  tubulated 
receiver  of  glass  or  earthenware,  the  lower  aperture  of  which 
is  closed  with  a  fine  wire  sieve.  A  strong  current  of  air  is 
then  blown  into  the  retort  with  a  pair  of  bellows,  whereby 
the  anthracen  is  driven  over  in  a  very  short  time  nearly 
pure  and  dry,  and  condenses  in  the  receiver  as  a  faintly 
yellowish,  snowy  mass.  By  this  method  a  quantity  of  anthra- 
cen, the  purification  of  which  by  re-crystallization  or  sub- 
limation would  take  several  days,  may  be  purified  in  as 
many  hours  ;  moreover  it  is  obtained  in  a  pulverulent  form, 
in  which  it  is  very  readily  acted  on  by  oxidizing  agents. 
Anthraquiiion,  prepared  from  crude  anthracen^  may  also  be 
obtained  by  this  method  in  the  form  of  a  light  yellow 
powder,  resembling  flowers  of  sulphur. 

If  it  is  required  to  obtain  anthracen  very  pure  (or  for 
treatment  by  the  di-chlor  process,  in  which  case  it  is  essential 
that  it  be  free  from  the  higher  bodies),  it  must,  before  being- 
placed  in  the  retorts,  be  ground  up  with  12  to  20  per  cent. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


179 


of  Montreal  potashes  and  a  small  quantity  of  lime,  as 
originally  recommended  by  Perkin.  This  operation  causes 
no  loss  of  anthracen,  as  it  has  been  proved  that  caustic 
potash  is  without  action  on  it,  but  other  substances,  which 
no  amount  of  washing  will  remove,  are  entirely  split  up  by 
the  alkali.  Caustic  soda  is  quite  useless  for  the  purpose. 
Anthracen  thus  treated  yields,  when  crystallized  from 
benzol,  the  pure  substance  in  the  form  of  fluorescent  tran- 
sparent crystals,  consisting  of  four  or  six-sided  plates,  which, 
when  seen  by  transmitted  light,  are  of  a  ver}^  pale  blue 
colour,  but  of  a  pale  violet  by  reflected  light. 

A  method  for  determining  tlie  amount  of  pure  anthracen 
either  in  commercial  anthracen  or  in  crude  green  grease  is 
the  following  : — The  melting-point  of  the  sample  in  question 
is  first  determined;  5  to  10  grammes  are  sufiicient  for  the 
operation.  It  is  put  between  thick  folds  of  blotting  paper, 
and  placed  under  a  press,  between  plates  which  have  been 
previously  ^warmed.  The  anthracen  remaining  upon  the 
paper  after  pressure  is  weighed.  The  residue  after  it  has 
been  boiled  with  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol,  filtered, 
washed  with  cold  alcohol  and  dried,  is  weighed  as  pure 
anthracen.  It  is  now  advisable  to  determine  the  melting- 
point  of  the  purified  product,  which  will  generally  be  318° 
Fahr.  (210''  C). 

The  test  which  is  now  almost  universally  adopted  is  Luck's 
test,  which  consists  in  boiling  a  gramme  of  the  sample,  dis- 
solved in  glacial  acetic  acid,  with  an  excess  of  solution  of 
chromic  acid.  When  the  solution  is  allowed  to  cool  and 
mixed  with  water,  the  anthraquinon  crystallizes  out,  this 
is  washed  and  dried,  and  the  subsequent  treatment  which  is 
adopted  consists  in  dissolving  the  anthraquinon  in  10 
grammes  of  warm  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  (after 
thorough  cooling)  separating  out  the  purified  product  by  the 
addition  of  water.    From  the  weight  of  this,  after  washing 

N  2 


i8o 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


and  drying,  the  quantity  of  the  original  sample  of  anthracen 
is  calculated.  All  samples  should  be  washed  with  cold  petro- 
leum spirit,  and  pressed  and  dried  before  the  gramme  is 
weighed  out  for  testing,  as  by  that  means  spurious  samples  are 
at  once  detected,  and  genuine  samples  are  obtained  in  the 
form  of  an  even  and  compact  mass.  Anthracen  is  only 
slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  rather  more  so  in  ether 
and  bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  is  more  soluble  in  hot,  but  less 
so  in  cold  benzene.  Petroleum  boiling  between  i6o°  and 
195°  Fahr.  dissolves  less  than  benzene. 

"Anthracene  dissolves  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
with  a  green  colour,  and  forms  conjugated  monsulpho-  or 
bisulpho-anthracene  acid,  according  to  the  temperature  em- 
ployed. Chlorine  and  bromine  give  rise  to  substitution  pro- 
ducts. Nitric  acid  acts  on  it  with  great  violence,  with  for- 
mation of  anthraquinone,  nitro-anthraquinone,  and  other 
compounds,  according  to  the  temperature  and  proportion  of 
the  substances  taken.  With  picric  acid  anthracene  forms 
a  compound,  crystallizing  in  very  bright  ruby-red  needles, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  are  seen  to  be  prisms. 
To  prepare  it  a  saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  in  water  at 
80°  Fahr.  (26*6°  C),  is  mixed  with  a  saturated  solution  of  an- 
thracene in  boiling  alcohol ;  on  cooling  the  compound  is 
deposited  in  the  crystalline  state.  It  is  rapidly  decomposed, 
by  an  excess  of  alcohol,  into  picric  acid  and  anthracene,  the 
solution  assuming  a  yellow  tint.  This  reaction  can  be  em- 
ployed to  distinguish  anthracene  from  naphthalene  and 
other  hydrocarbons,  naphthalene  under  similar  circumstances 
forming  a  compound  which  crystallizes  in  fine  golden-yellow 
needles,  whilst  chrysene  gives  rise  to  clusters  of  very  small 
yellow  needles."*    Another   characteristic  of  anthracen, 


*  Calvert's  "  Dyeing  and  Calico-Printing,"  edited  by  Stenhouse 
and  Groves. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


noticed  by  Fritzsche,  is  its  deportment  under  the  micro- 
scope with  a  sohition  of  binitro-anthraquinon  in  benzene. 
In  this  reaction  fine  rhomboidal  scales  of  a  beautiful  pink 
colour  are  formed,  the  purity  and  brilhancy  of  the  colour 
depending  on  the  purity  of  the  anthracen. 

In  the  ^'  Bui.  Soc.  Chim.,"  vii.  274,  several  reactions  by 
Vv'hich  anthracen  is  formed  are  described  by  Berthelot,  such 
as  by  the  action  of  heat  on  other  hydrocarbons,  or  by  passing 
the  vapours  of  ethylene,  styrolene,  and  benzene  through  a 
porcelain  tube  heated  to  bright  redness. 

A  great  number  of  products  are  procured  from  anthracen, 
by  far  the  most  important  of  these  being  artificial  alizarin. 

Alizarin,  Artificial,  Cj^HgO^.  This  colour  was  first 
obtained  by  Graebe  and  Liebermann  in  1869  from  anthra- 
quinon,  an  oxidation  product  of  anthracen,  this  latter  being, 
as  already  stated,  a  substance  which  is  formed  during  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal-tar.  These  chemists  con- 
verted anthracen  into  anthraquinon  by  means  of  nitric  acid. 

According  to  the  original  method  of  preparing  alizarin, 
the  anthraquinon  was  first  converted  into  a  dibromide  of 
anthraquinon  by  treatment  with  bromine,  and  this  bromated 
compound,  by  further  treatment  either  with  caustic  potash 
or  soda  at  a  temperature  of  356°  to  392°  Fahr.  (180°  to  200"^ 
Cent.)  converted  into  alizarin-potassium  (or  alizarin-sodium 
if  caustic  soda  has  been  used),  from  which  the  ahzarin  is  set 
free  by  means  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Alizarin  is  now  procured  from  anthraquinon  by  treatment 
at  a  temperature  of  500°  Fahr.  (260  Cent.), with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  of  1*84  sp.  gr.,  the  anthraquinon  being  con- 
verted into  a  sulpho-acid ;  this  acid  is  next  neutralized  with 
carbonate  of  lime,  the  fluid  decanted  from  the  deposited  sul- 
phate of  lime,  and  carbonate  of  soda  added  to  it,  with  the 
object  of  throwing  down  all  the  lime.  The  clear  liquid  is 
then  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  resulting  saline  mass  is  con- 


l82 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


verted  into  alizarin-sodium  by  heating  it  with  caustic  sodium. 
From  the  ahzarin-sodium  thus  obtained  the  ahzarin  is  set 
free  by  the  aid  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

In  another  method  the  preparation  of  anthraquinon  is 
avoided,  and  anthracen  employed  directly,  by  first  con- 
verting it,  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid  and  heat,  into  anthra- 
censulphonic  acid.  After  having  been  diluted  with  water, 
the  solution  of  this  acid  is  treated  with  oxidizing  agents 
(peroxides  of  manganese  and  lead,  chromic  acid,  nitric  acid), 
and  the  acid  fluid  is  afterwards  neutralized  Avith  carbonate 
of  lime.  When  peroxide  of  manganese  has  been  used,  the 
manganese  is  precipitated  as  oxide.  The  oxidized  sulpho- 
acid  having  been  previously  converted  into  a  potassium  salt, 
the  latter  being  heated  with  caustic  soda,  alizarin  is  obtained. 
The  details  of  these  two  processes  will  be  found  set  forth 
in  the  terms  of  the  patent  taken  out  by  Messrs.  Caro, 
Graebe,  cfe  LiEBERMANN,  further  on. 

The  following  method  of  preparing  alizarin  from  anthracen 
is  by  GiRARD.  The  material  used  is  that  which  distils 
between  290°  and  360°  Cent.;  it  is  purified  by  distillation  and 
pressure,  the  portion  which  passes  over,  between  300° and  305° 
Cent.,  being  collected  separately.  This  mixture  is  treated 
with  potassium  chlorate  and  hydrochloric  acid,  whereby  it 
is  converted  into  tetra-chlorinated  products.  These  are 
oxidized  either  by  nitric  acid  in  the  water-bath,  or  by  a 
metallic  oxide  (red  or  brown  oxide  of  lead,)  and  sulpliuric 
or  acetic  acid.  In  the  first  place  a  mixture  of  dichlorantlira- 
quinon  and  chloride  of  chloroxyanthranyl  are  obtained. 
These  substances  are  treated  in  presence  of  a  metallic  oxide 
(oxide  of  zinc,  oxide  of  copper,  or  litharge)  with  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  sodium  acetate.  The  metallic  oxide  removes  the 
last  atom  of  chlorine  from  the  sodium  chloroxyanthranilate, 
and  converts  it,  like  the  dichloranthraquinon,  into  alizarin. 
The  purification  is  effected  by  means  of  benzene,  petroleum, 


DYE  STUFFS. 


183 


ifec,  which  dissolve  out  the  foreign  matters,  and  by  successive 
precipitation  from  the  alkahne  sokitions  by  mineral  acids. 
The  foreign  matters  may  also  be  separated  by  means  of  a 
little  alum,  when  it  is  necessary  to  work  with  neutral  potash 
or  soda  salts. 

Another  method  for  the  preparation  of  alizarin  has  been 
patented  by  Dale  &  Schorlemmer.  It  is  as  follows  : — i  part 
of  antliracen  is  boiled  with  from  4  to  10  parts  of  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  then  diluted  with  water,  and  the  solution 
neutralized  with  carbonate  of  calcium,  barium,  potassium,  or 
sodium.  The  resulting  sulphates  having  been  removed  by 
filtration  or  crystallization,  the  solution  is  heated  to  between 
180°  and  260°  Cent,  with  caustic  potash  or  soda,  to  which  a 
quantity  of  potassium  nitrate  or  chlorate  has  been  added, 
about  equal  in  weight  to  the  anthracen,  as  long  as  a  blue- 
violet  colour  is  thereby  produced.  From  this  product  the 
alizarin  is  separated  in  the  usual  way  by  precipitation  with  • 
an  acid.  Several  other  patents  have  been  taken  out  for  the 
preparation  of  artificial  alizarin. 

The  specification  of  Messrs.  Caro,  Graebe,  &  Liebermann, 
and  dated  June  25,  1869,  was  the  first  which  was  taken  out 
in  England.  We  quote  it  here  because  it  enters  more  fully 
into  detail  than  any  of  the  others. 

"  Our  invention  is  carried  into  effect  by  means  of  either 
of  the  two  processes  which  we  will  proceed  to  describe. 

"  In  the  one  process  we  proceed  as  follows  : — We  take 
about  I  part  by  weight  of  anthraquinone  and  abovit  3  parts 
by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  about  specific  gravity 
I  "848,  and  introduce  the  same  into  a  retort,  and  the  contents 
are  then  to  be  heated  up  to  about  260°  Cent.,  and  the 
temperature  is  maintained  until  the  mixture  is  found  no 
longer  to  contain  any  appreciable  quantity  of  unaltered 
anthraquinone.  The  completion  of  this  operation  may  be 
ascertained  or  tested  by  withdraAving  a  small  portion  of  the 


1 84  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


product  from  time  to  time,  and  continuing  the  operation  at 
the  high  temperature  until  such  product,  upon  being  dikited 
with  water,  is  found  to  form  a  substantially  perfect  solution, 
thereby  indicating  that  the  anthraquinone  has  become 
either  entirely  or  in  greater  part  converted  into  the  desired 
product.    The  products  thus  obtained  are  then  allowed  to 
cool,  and  are  diluted  with  water ;  carbonate  of  lime  is  then 
added  in  order  to  neutralize   and  remove  the  excess  of 
sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  solution  ;  the  mixture  is 
then  filtered,  and  to  the  filtrate,  carbonate  of  soda,  by 
preference  in  solution,  is  to  be  added  until  carbonate  of 
lime  is  no  longer  precipitated  ;  the  mixture  is  then  filtered, 
and  the  clear  solution  is  evaporated  to  dryness,  by  which 
means  the  soda  salt  of  the  sulpho-acids  of  anthraquinone 
are  obtained,  and  which  are  to  be  treated  in  the  following* 
manner  : — We  take  about  i  part  by  weight  of  this  product, 
and  from  3  to  3  parts  by  weight  of  solid  caustic  soda, 
water  may  be  added  or  not,  but  by  preference  we  add  as 
much  water  as   is  necessary  to  dissolve  the  alkali  after 
admixture  ;  we  heat  the  whole  in  a  suitable  vessel,  and  the 
heating  operation  is  continued  at  a  temperature  of  from 
about  180°  to  260°  Cent.,  for  about  one  hour,  or  until  a 
portion  of  the  mixture  is  found  upon  withdrawing  and  test- 
ing it,  to  give  a  solution  in  water,  which  being  acidulated  with 
an  acid — for  example,  sulphuric  acid — will  give  a  copious 
precipitate  of  the  colouring  matters.    The  heating  operation 
having  been  found  to  have  been  continued  for  a  sufficient 
time,  the  resulting  products  are  then  dissolved  in  water, 
and  we  either  filter  or  decant  the  solution  of  the  same, 
from  which  we  precipitate  the  colouring  matters  or  artificial 
alizarine,  by  means  of  an  acid,  such,  for  example,  as  sulphuric 
or  acetic  acid.    The  precipitated  colouring  matters  thus 
obtained  are  collected  in  a  filter  or  otherwise,  and  after 
having  been  washed  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose  of 


DYE  STUFFS. 


185 


dyeing  and  printing,  either  in  the  same  way  as  preparations 
of  madder  are  now  used  or  otherwise. 

"  In  carrying  out  our  other  process,  we  proceed  as  follows  : 
— We  take  about  i  part  by  weight  of  anthracene,  and  about  4 
parts  by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  specific  gravity  of  about 
1-848,  and  the  mixture  being  contained  in  a  suitable  vessel, 
is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  Cent.,  and  which 
temperature  is  to  be  maintained  for  the  space  of  about  three 
hours;  the  temperature  is  then  to  be  raised  to  about  150° 
Cent.,  which  temperature  is  to  be  maintained  for  about  one 
hour,  or  until  a  small  portion  of  the  product  when  submitted 
to  the  two  subsequent  processes  hereinafter  described,  is  found 
to  produce  the  desired  colouring  matters  ;  we  then  allow  the 
result  obtained  by  this  operation  to  cool,  and  dilute  it  with 
water,  by  preference  in  the  proportion  of  about  three  times 
its  weight.  To  the  solution  thus  obtained  we  add  for  every 
part  of  anthracene  by  weight  which  had  been  employed  in 
the  previous  ojDerations,  from  about  2  to  3  parts  by  weight 
of  peroxide  of  manganese,  preferring  to  employ  an  excess, 
and  we  boil  the  whole  strongly  for  some  time,  and  in  order 
fully  to  ensure  the  desired  degree  of  oxidation,  the  mixture 
may  be  subsequently  concentrated,  and  by  preference  be 
evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  heat  be  continued  until  a 
small  portion  of  the  oxidized  product,  when  submitted  to 
the  subsequent  processes  hereinafter  described,  will  produce 
the  desired  colouring  matters.  We  then  neutralize  and 
remove  the  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  this  mixture,  and  at 
the  same  time  precipitate  any  oxides  of  manganese  that 
may  be  held  in  solution,  by  adding  an  excess  of  caustic 
lime,  which  we  use  by  preference  in  the  form  of  milk  of 
lime,  and  we  add  the  same  until  the  mixture  has  an  alkaline 
reaction.  We  then  filter,  and  add  to  the  filtrate  carbonate 
of  soda,  until  there  is  no  further  precipitation  of  carbonate 
of  lime.    The  solution  is  then  filtered  and  evaporated  to 


i86  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


dryness,  and  we  thus  obtain  the  potash  or  soda  salts  of  what 
w^e  call  the  sulpho-aeids  of  anthraquinone. 

"  In  effecting  the  conversion  of  the  oxidized  products 
thus  obtained  into  colouring  matters,  or  into  what  we  call 
artificial  alizarine,  we  proceed  as  follows  : — We  take  i  part 
by  weight  of  this  product,  and  from  2  to  3  parts  by  weight 
of  solid  caustic  soda,  and  water  may  be  added  or  not,  but 
by  preference  we  add  as  much  water  as  may  be  necessary 
to  dissolve  the  alkali.  After  admixture  we  heat  the  whole 
in  a  suitable  vessel,  and  continue  the  heating  operation  at 
a  temperature  of  about  180*  to  about  260°  Cent,  for 
about  one  hour,  or  until  a  portion  of  the  mixture  is 
found  to  give  a  solution  in  water,  which  upon  acidulation 
with  an  acid,  for  example,  sulphuric  acid,  is  found  to 
give  a  copious  precipitate  of  the  colouring  matters.  The 
heating  operation  having  been  found  to  have  been  continued 
for  a  sufficient  time,  we  then  dissolve^the  product  in  water, 
and  either  filter  or  decant  the  solution  of  the  same,  from 
which  we  precipitate  the  colouring  matters  or  artificial 
alizarine  by  means  of  a  mineral  or  organic  acid,  such,  for 
example,  as  sulphuric  or  acetic  acid. 

"  Instead  of  acting  upon  anthracene,  by  means  of  sulphuric 
acid  of  the  density  before  mentioned,  fuming  sulphuric  acid 
may  be  employed,  but  we  prefer  to  use  the  ordinary  kind 
before  described.*  * 

"  In  order  to  elfect  the  process  of  oxidation,  before  referred 
to,  other  oxidizing  agents  may  be  used  in  the  place  of  the 
oxide  of  manganese,  before  mentioned,  such,  for  example,  as 
peroxide  of  lead,  or  chromic,  nitric,  or  other  acids  capable 
of  efiecting  the  desired  oxidation  may  be  employed." 


*  The  preference  here  mentioned  is  for  reasons  of  economy,  but 
now  that  solid  sulphuric  acid  is  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Messel, 
Chapman  &  Co.,  it  is  used  in  the  place  of  ordinary  sulphuric  acid. 


DYE  STUFFS. 


187 


Mr.  W.  H.  Perkin's  patent  is  similar  in  principle  to 
that  of  Messrs.  Card,  Graebe,  &  Liebermann,  and  is  dated 
only  one  day  later. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  a  patent  taken  out  in 
France  in  May,  1869,  by  MM.  Brcenner  &  Gutzkon  for  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  alizarin.  One  part  of  anthracen 
is  heated  with  2  parts  of  nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1*3  to  i'5.  The 
anthraquinon  thus  produced  is  w^ashed  and  dissolved  at 
a  moderate  heat  in  sulphuric  acid.  Mercuric  nitrate  is  now 
added,  which  converts  the  anthraquinon  into  alizarin. 
The  mass  thus  formed  is  dissolved  in  an  excess  of  alkali, 
which  precipitates  the  oxide  of  mercury,  and  retains  the 
colouring  matters  in  solution.  The  alkaline  liquor  is 
decanted  and  neutralized  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  preci- 
pitate thus  formed  is  washed  and  collected.  If  not  quite 
pure,  the  treatment  with  alkali  must  be  repeated.  The 
complete  specification  of  this  patent  is  pubHshed  in  the 
Moniteur  Scientifiqice,  vol.  xi.  p.  865. 

Bromine,  by  its  action  on  alizarin,  produces  a  derivative 
which  gives  rather  redder  shades,  but  if  nitrous  acid  vapours 
act  on  dry  ahzarin  they  produce  nitro-alizarin,  which  is 
known  commercially  as  alizarin-orange. 

Alizarin-blue  is  obtained  by  heating  a  mixture  of 
alizarin-orange,  glycerin  and  sulphuric  acid. 

In  England  a  large  quantity  of  artificial  alizarin  is  manu- 
factured by  the  process  of  Mr.  Perkin,  by  Messrs.  Burt, 
BouLTON,  &  Haywood,  and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
madder  and  madder  extract,  in  Turkey-red  dyeing  and 
topical  styles.  The  largest  makers  of  artificial  alizarin  011 
the  Continent  are  Messrs.  Gessert  Freres,  of  Elberfeld, 
Messrs.  Meister,  Lucius  &  Co.,  of  Hiichst,  near 
Frankfort,  and  the  Badische  Anilin  und  Soda  Fabric, 
Mannheim. 

Anthrapurpurin,  C^^Hp^.  —  A  colouring  matter  ob- 


BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 


tainecl  as  a  secondary  j^rocluct  in  the  preparation  of  alizarin 
from  anthracen.  It  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  the 
crude  colouring  matter  in  a  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  shaking  up  the  resulting  solution  with  freshly 
precipitated  alumina,  which  combines  with  the  alizarin, 
leaving  the  anthrapurpurin  in  solution.  This  is  filtered  off 
from  the  ahzarin  lake,  heated  to  boiling,  and  acidified  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  colouring  matter  which  is  precipi- 
tated is  thrown  on  to  a  filter,  washed  and  dried. 

Anthrapurpurin  is  the  principal  product  of  Perkin's 
di-chlor  process,  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  sketch  : — 
The  anthracen,  which  had  been  purified  by  washing  and 
distillation  with  potash,  was  placed  in  charges  of  400  lbs.  in 
leaden  ovens,  which  rested  on  shallow  wrought-iron  steam- 
chests  (set  in  pairs),  and  chlorine  was  passed  over.  The 
crude  di-chlor-anthracen  thus  obtained  was  then  drawn  out 
into  shallow  open  tubs  and  stirred  up  with  cold  heavy 
naphtha.  After  being  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time  it 
was  pressed,  then  again  washed  with  clean  naphtha  and 
again  pressed.  After  that  it  was  placed  in  shallow  trays 
and  dried  at  a  moderate  heat.  The  subsequent  operations 
for  converting  the  di-chlor-anthracen  into  red-shade  alizarin 
are  the  same  as  those  adopted  in  the  treatment  of  anthra- 
quinon. 

Anthrapurpurin  has  about  the  same  afiinity  for  mordants 
as  alizarin.  It  forms  red  with  alumina,  and  purple  and 
black  with  iron  mordants.  The  reds  are  much  purer  and 
less  blue  in  colour  than  those  of  the  alizarin,  whilst  the 
purples  are  not  so  good  and  the  blacks  more  intense.  The 
anthrapurpurin  colours  resist  soap  and  light  quite  as  effec- 
tively as  those  produced  with  alizarin.  When  employed  to 
dye  Turkey-red,  anthrapurpurin  gives  a  very  brilliant  scarlet 
shade  of  colour,  which  is  of  remarkable  durability. 

Besides  the  products  obtained  from   aniline,  a  series 


DYE  STUFFS. 


1S9 


of  colours  have  been  obtained  from  phenol,  or  carbolic  acid, 
another  substance  obtained  from  coal-tar. 

Picric  Acid. — This  is  obtained  by  treating  in  a  suitable 
apparatus,  with  proper  precautions,  carbolic  acid  with  nitric 
acid.  It  is  a  pale  yellow  crystalline  acid,  forming  dark 
orange  explosive  salts,  and  dyeing  silk  a  fine  yellow. 

Isopurpurate  of  Potassium.  Syn.  Picric  Red. — By 
treating  picric  acid  with  cyanide  of  potassium  a  very  explosive 
salt  is  obtained,  used  to  dye  wool  a  deep  red  colour. 

Grenate  Brown  is  the  name  given  to  a  colouring  matter 
which  is  essentially  a  crude  isopurpurate.  When  dry,  grenate 
brown  explodes  if  subjected  to  the  smallest  amount  of 
friction.  It  should  therefore  be  kept  in  the  form  of  a  paste, 
which  may  be  preserved  moist  by  means  of  glycerin. 

Phoenicienne  is  a  deep  garnet  colour,  obtained  by  the 
action  of  nitro-sulphuric  acid  on  carbolic  acid.  It  furnishes 
a  variety  of  solid  shades  which  resist  sunlight,  and  even 
chloride  of  lime ;  they  surpass  in  purity  and  brightness  all 
similar  colours  obtained  with  dye-woods  and  orchil. 

Aurine.  Syn.  Rosolic  Acid.  —  This  is  obtained  by 
heating  a  mixture  of  sulphuric,  oxalic,  and  carbolic  acids, 
and  purifying  the  product.  It  is  a  beautifiil  reddish, 
resinous  substance,  with  a  pale  green  lustre,  and  yielding 
an  orange-coloured  solution,  changed  by  alkalies  to  a 
splendid  crimson.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  in  using  it, 
however,  it  is  not  very  extensively  employed. 

Peonine.  Syn.  Coralline. — This  dye  is  formed  when 
rosolic  acid  and  ammonia  are  heated  to  between  248°  and 
284°  Fahr.  (120°  to  140°  Cent.).  It  is  a  fine  crimson  dye, 
forming  shades  similar  to  safflower,  on  silk,  but,  owing  to 
the  bad  effects  of  acids,  not  much  used. 

Azuline. — Prepared  by  heating  coralline  and  anihne 
together.  A  coppery  coloured  resinous  substance,  soluble 
in  alcohol,  and  with  difficulty  in  w^ater,  and  dyeing  silk  a  blue 


I90  BLEACHING,  DYEING,  ETC. 

colour.  The  aniline  blues,  however,  have  superseded  it  to  a 
great  extent. 

Carbolic  acid,  when  saturated  with  ammonia  and  heated, 
yields  aniline,  and  Dusart  &  Bardy  have  found  that  when 
heated  under  pressure  with  sal-ammoniac  and  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  principal  yield  is  diphenylamine.  This  substance 
by  treatment  with  oxalic  acid  (there  are  many  other  sub- 
stances which  can  be  used,  but  they  are  not  so  advantageous), 
yields  a  splendid  blue  called  Diphenylamine  Blue. 

Naphthalene  occurs  in  such  abundance  in  coal-tar  that 
tlie  supply  is  far  in  excess  of  the  demand.  By  treating  this 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  benzol  is  converted  into  ani- 
line, a  solid  crystalline  white  base,  termed  naphthylamine, 
is  produced.  From  this  substance  are  obtained  the  follow- 
ing dyes  :— 

DiNiTRONAPHTHOL.  Syn.  MANCHESTER.  Yellow,  is  prepared 
direct  without  separating  the  intermediate  product (naphthol) 
by  acting  on  the  result  of  the  action  of  nitrite  of  soda  or 
hydrochlorate  of  naphthylamine  with  nitric  acid  at  a  boiling 
heat.  Ammonia  is  added  to  the  liquid  when  cold,  and  the 
compound  thus  produced  is  purified  by  crystallization.  In 
steam  dyeing,  Manchester  yellow  has  this  advantage  over 
picric  acid — the  latter  is  volatilized  by  the  heat,  whilst 
the  former  is  fixed  to  the  fabric.  If  nitro-naphthalene  is 
mixed  with  slaked  lime  and  a  solution  of  caustic  potash, 
and  the  mass  is  heated  for  twelve  hours  to  300°  F.  (149^ 
Cent.)  in  a  current  of  air,'  the  colouring  matter,  which  is 
separated  by  adding  acid  to  an  aqueous  extract  of  the  pro- 
duct, is  a  yellow  dye  termed  French  Yellow. 

Naphthalene  treated  with  a  mixture  of  chlorate  of  potash 
and  hydrochloric  acid  yields  two  substances,  one  of  which, 
when  treated  with  nitric  acid,  produces  phthalic  acid,  which 
by  the  action  of  heat  is  converted  into  phthalic  anhydride. 
This  substance  when  treated  with  resorcine  (formerly  pre- 


DYE  STUFFS, 


191 


pared  from  Brazil  wood,  but  now  made  from  benzol)  yields 
a  splendid  yellow  dye,  named  Fluorescein.  This,  if  ground 
in  alcohol  and  carefully  treated  with  bromine,  yields  the 
brilKant  scarlet  dye  named  Yellowish  Eosin. 

A  naphthalene  red,  know^n  as  Magdala  Ked,  was 
obtained  by  Schiendl,  in  1867.  It  possesses  a  tinctorial 
value  equal  to  fuchsin,  which  latter  colour  it  excels  in  the 
property  of  fastness.  Tt  is  procured  by  first  acting  on 
naphthylamine  with  nitrous  acid,  and  then  treating  the 
resulting  product  with  naphthylamine,  Avhich  gives  rise  to 
Magdala  Red. 

Safrosin  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  nitrate  of  soda  and 
sulphuric  acid  on  a  solution  of  yellowish  eosin  in  boiling 
water.  This  colour  gives  a  more  bluish-red  tinge  than 
eosin.  The  other  substance  produced  in  the  manufacture  of 
phthalic  acid  is  an  acid  which,  combined  with  a  base,  yields 
an  orange  dye. 


APPENDIX. 


Table  of  the  'princiixd  Weujhts  and  Measures  of  the  Metrical 
System,  with  their  Equivalents  in  Common  Weights  and 
Measures. 


Length. 


Metrical. 

In  English 
inches. 

In  English  feet 
=  12  inches. 

In  English  yards 
-  3  feet. 

rentimetrc  = 

Metre  = 

.  0-03937 
o'3937i 
3'937o8 
39'37079 
393"7079o 
3937-07900 
393707900 

0-003  2S09 
0-0328090 
0-3280899 
3-2808992 
32-8089920 
328-OS99200 
3280-899200 

0-0010936 
0-0109363 

0-  1093633 

1 -  093633 1 
10-9363310 

109-3033100 
1 093 -633 1 000 

Capacity. 


Metrical. 

In  cubic 
inches. 

In  cubic  feet 

=  1728 
cubic  inches. 

In  pints 
=  34"65933 
cubic 
inches. 

In  gallons 
=  8  pints 
=  277-27384 
cubic  inelies. 

Millilitre,  or  cubic  centi-  [  _ 

Centilitre,  or  10  cubic  centi- )  _ 

Decilitre,  or  100  cubic  centi- )  _ 

Litre,  or  cubic  decimetre  .  — 
Decalitre,  or  centistere  .    .  = 
Hectolitre,  or  decistere     .  = 

0*061027 
0-610271 

6-102705 

61-027052 
610-270515 
6102-705152 

0-0C00353 

0-0003532 

0*0035317 
0*0353166 
0*3531658 
3'53i658i 

0*001761 
0*017608 

0*176077 

1-760773 
17-607734 
176-077341 

0*00032010 

0  00230097 

0*03300967 

0*33009668 
3-30:96677 
33-0096767 

Weight. 

Metrical. 

In  English 
grains. 

In  Troy 
ounces 
=  480  grains. 

In  Avoir- 
dupois lbs. 
=  .7,000 
grains. 

In  cwts. 
=  112  lbs.  = 
734,000 
grains. 

Milligramme  = 

Centigramme  = 

Decigramme  — 

Gramme  = 

Decagramme  = 

Hectogramme  — 

Kilogramme  (kilo)  .    .    .  = 

0*015432 
o' 154323 

i5"432349 
154*323488 
1543*234880 
15432-348800 

0*000033 
0*000322 
0-003215 
0-032151 
0-321507 
3*215073 
32-150727 

0*0000023 

0*0000220 

0-0002205 
0-0022046 
0-0220462 
0*2204621 
2-2046213 

0-00000002 
0-00000020 
0  00000197 
0-00001968 
0-00019684 
0-00196841 
001968413 

o 


Sj^ecijic  Gravities  corres2:)ondvng  to  Degrees  of 
Baume's  Hydrometer. 
For  Liquids  heavier  than  Water  (Poggiale)."^ 


SJX.  y  1  CCD. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Decrees. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees. 

Specific 
Gnivitv. 

Spoci.'ii- 
Gravity. 

o 

I  '000 

20 

1-161 

40 

1-383 

60 

1-711 

I 

1*007 

21 

1-171 

41 

I '397 

(u 

1-732 

3 

i'oi4 

23 

1  ■  1 80 

42 

.-410 

62 

I  753 

3 

I"022 

23 

r  1  Qo 

43 

1-424 

63 

i'774 

4 

I'029 

24 

ri99 

44 

1-438 

«4 

1-790 

5 

I"03D 

25 

1  1210 

4i 

I  "453 

65 

1819 

6 

I '044 

26 

1-221 

4b 

i-4()8 

66 

1-840 

7 

1-052 

27 

1-231 

47 

I  "483 

07 

1-872 

8 

\'obo 

28 

1-242 

48 

1-498 

()8 

1-897 

9 

I '067 

29 

I '253 

49 

1-514 

69 

1-931 

lo 

1'075 

30 

1-2  ;4 

50 

I '530 

70 

1-946 

J I 

I  -083 

31 

1'27.^ 

5  ( 

1-546 

71 

1-974 

13 

T'ogi 

32 

1-280 

52 

i-5»'3 

72 

2-OCO 

13 

1"IOO 

33 

1-297 

53 

1-580 

73 

2  -03  I 

14 

rio8 

34 

I '309 

£4 

1-597 

74 

2-059 

15 

1T16 

35 

1-320 

55 

r&i< 

16 

1-125 

30 

i'332 

5<J 

it'34 

17 

1-134 

37 

I '345 

57 

1-652 

18 

>;i43 

38 

i'3^7 

58 

1-07, 

19 

39 

i'37o 

59 

1-691 

Specific  Gravities  corresponding  to  Degrees  of 
Baume's  Hydrometer. 
For  Liquids  lighter  than  Water  (Fean('g-;ue). 


Degree?. 

Specific 
(Jnivity. 

Degrees. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

10 

I -000 

23 

0-918 

36 

0-849 

49 

0-789 

1 1 

o-9g3 

24 

0-913 

37 

0^44 

50 

0-78S 

0-986 

25  , 

0-907 

38 

0-8  j9 

51 

0-781 

13 

Q-gSo 

26 

0-901 

39 

0  >'34 

52 

0-777 

14 

0-973 

27 

0-896 

40 

0-^  ;o 

53 

0-773 

15 

0-967 

2S 

0-890 

41 

0-S25 

54 

0-768 

lO 

0-960 

-9 

0-885 

42 

0-820 

55 

0-764 

:2 

0-954 

30 

0-880 

43 

o-m6 

56 

0-760 

0-948 

31 

0-874 

44 

o-8i  r 

57 

0-757 

19 

0-942 

32 

0-869 

45 

0-807 

58 

0-753 

20 

0-936 

33 

0-864 

46 

o-8c2 

59 

0-749 

i\ 

0-930 

34 

0-859 

47 

0-798 

60 

0-745 

0-924 

35 

0*854 

48 

0-794 

The  temperature  at  which  these  instruments  were  originally- 
adjusted  by  Baume  was  12-5°  Cent.  (54-5°  Fahr.).  They  are  now 
commonly  adjusted  in  this  country  at  58""  or  60^^  Fahr. 

The  degrees  of  T^vaddle's  hydrometer  may  be  converted  into  the 
corresponding  specific  gravities  by  multiplying  them  by  5  and  adding 
1000. 


INDEX. 


Acid,  102 
Acid  discharge  102 
Adjective  colours,  36 
Ageing,  71 

iiiacliine,  71 
Aldehyde  green,  175 
Alizarin,  153 

artificial,  181 
Alizarin,   artificial,   Brceimer  & 

Gutzkon's  patent  for  preparing, 

187 

Alizarin,  artificial,  Caro,  Graebe  & 
Liebermann's  method  of  pre- 
paring, 183 

Alizarin,  artificial,  Dale  &  Schor- 
lemmer's  method  of  preparing, 

Alizarin,  artificial,  preparation  of, 
181,  181 

Alizarin,   artificial,   by  Girard's 

method,  182 
Alizarin,  artificial,  Perkin's  method 

of  preparing,  187 
Alizarin  blue,  187 
Alkermes,  147 
Aloes,  133 
Aloin,  133 

Alumina,  nitrate    of,    for  steam 

styles,  113 
Amber  for  steam  styles,  121 
Ammoniacal  cochineal,  60 
Ammonia  purpurate,  156 
Aniline,  i6i 


Aniline,  from  coal-tar,  161 

from     nitro-benzol  (Zinin), 
162 

from  nitro-benzol  (Bechamps), 

162,  163 
from  indigo,  164 
other  metiiods  of  preparing, 

164,  165 
properties  of,  165 
tests  for,  165 
Eeimann's  test  fur,  166 
black,  167 

black  with  vanadium,  45 

blue,  168 

blue  dye,  49 

blue  fur  printing,  170 

brown,  1 70 

green,  171 

grey,  170 

pink,  170 

red,  172 

Aniline  red,  Goupier's  method  of 

preparing,  174 
Aniline  red,  Dale  &  Caro's  patent, 

174 

Aniline  red,  Gerber-Keller's  patent 

f(n-  preparation  of,  172 
Aniline  red,  Laurent  Castholaz's 

method  of  preparing,  174 
Aniline  red,  Renard's  method  of 

preparing,  174 
Aniline  red,  Lauth  &  Depouilly's 

method  for  preparing,  172 
Aniline  red,  Medlock's  patent  for 

preparation  of,  172 


196 


INDEX. 


Aniline  red,  Smith's  method  of 
preparation,  174 
violets,  176,  177 

Aniline   violet,  by   Smiilrs  me- 
thod, 177 

Aniline  violet,  by  Bolley  &  Beale, 
77 

Aniline  violet,  by  Price's  method, 

Aniline  violet,  by  Kay's  method, 
^77 

Aniline  violet  and  blue  dyes,  ( Jirard 

&  l)e  Laire,  1 74 
Aniline,  yellow,  177 
Annotta,  133 

adulteration  of,  135 

to  test,  134 
Anthracen,  177 

Luck's  test  for,  179 

properties  of,  180 

Schuller's  method  of  purify- 
ing, 178 
Anthrapurpurin,  187 
Antichlore,  29 
Apparatus,  dyeing,  39 
Archil,  135 
Aurine,  189 
Avignon  berries,  1 57 
Azaleine,  172 
Azuline,  189 


B. 


BaKK,  QUERCITROX,  1 58 

standard  for  steam  styles,  117 
Darwood,  136 

red,  for  cotton,  53 
liasic   tin  compound    for  steam 

styles,  117 
J*>astard  saffron,  15S 
Benzol,  160 
Benzyl  violet,  177 
Bergman's  theory,  38 
Berries,  157 

Avignon,  157 

French,  157 

Persian,  157 

yellow,  157 
Bismark's  brown,  170 
Bixia,  134 


Black  aniline  (calico  printing)  96 
!         aniline  with  vanadium,  45 
I         common,  44,  45 
j         chrome,  45 
:         De  Vinant's,  46 

dyes  for  cotton,  43,  44,  45, 

46,  47 
for  extract  styles,  129 
Italian,  45 
i         liquor,  155 
{         for  machine  work,  95 
I         for  pigment  colours,  126 
I         for  spirit  styles,  122 

standard  for  steam  styles,  i  iS 
j         dyes  for  wool,  55,  56 
i  Blankets  for  cylinder  printing,  67 
Bleaching,  chemico-mechanic;d 
process  of,  21,  22,  23,  24 
of  cotton,  8 
feathers,  28 

history  of,  t,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7 
Hodge's  process  of,  21,  22,  23, 

linen,  13,  14,  15,  16 
materials  for  paper,  28,  29 
new  or  continuous  process  of, 

9,  10,  11,  J2 
powder,  proposed  substitutes 

for,  12,  13,  3^ 
printed  paper,  29 
Bamsay's  method,  32 
silk,  27 
straw,  30 

Tessiedii  Mathey's method,  33 
theory  of,  31 
wax,  30,  31 
woollen  goods,  26,  27 
3'arn,  21 
Block  printing,  63 
Blue,  alizarin,  167 
black  for  wool,  5^ 
cerulean,  for  extract  styles, 

dyes  for  cotton,  49 
diphenylamine,  1 90 
discharge  on  bronze,  124 
for  indigo  styles,  89,  90 
for  spirit  styles,  [22 
dark,  for  steam  styles,  1 14, 
111 

medium,  for  steam  styles,  115 


INDEX. 


197 


?3Jue,  pale,  for  steam  styles,  115, 
121 

(metliyline)  for  extract  styles, 
131 

fast,  standard,  104 
fast,  for  block  work,  1 04 
de  Lyons,  168 
opal,  168 
de  Paris,  1 7  r 

standard,  for  pigment  colours, 
127 

dyes  for  silk,  55 
standard,    for   steam  styles, 
118,  119 

Bolley  &  Beale's  method  of  pre- 
paring:? aniline  violet,  177 
Bousage,  72 
Brazil  wood,  138 
Brazilin,  139 

Brightening  printed  goods,  75 
Britannia  violet,  175 
Brcenner  &  Gutzkon's  method  of 
preparing  artificial  alizarin,  187 
Bronze  colour  style,  93 
Jjrown,  Bismark,  47 

bright,  48 

catechu,  47 

dark,  48 

dyes  fur  cotton,  47,  48 
grenate,  189 
for  indigo  styles,  1 10 
light,  48 

light,  for  indigo  styles,  1 1 1 
madder,  to  resist  heavy  covers 

of  purple,  98 
standard,  calico  printing,  97 
for  machine  work,  97 
medium,  48 

medium  (calico  printing)  98 
for  pigment  colours,  125 
medium,  for  steam  styles,  1 1 7 
dye  for  wool,  57 
Buff,  for  indigo  styles,  no 
for  pigment  styles,  125 
(medium),  for  steam  styles,!  19 
(pale)  for  steam  styles,  119 
standard,  103 

standard,  for  steam  styles,  119 


c. 

Calico  Pkixtixg,  61 
history  of,  61,  62 
styles  of,  86 
Campeachy  wood,  149 
(Jamwood,  138 
Canary  dye  for  cotton,  51 
Caro,    Graebe    &    Liebermann  s 
method  of  preparing  artificial 
alizarin,  183 
Carthamin,  158 
Catechu,  137 
j         varieties  of,  137 

to  test,  137 
j         brown,  47 
1  Chamois  dve  for  cotton,  50 
I         for  indigo,  1 10 
I         for  steam  styles,  118 
i  Chemico  -  mechanical  process  of 
1      bleaching,  21,  22,  23,  24 
i  Chestnut  for  steam  styles,  118 
Chevreul's  theory,  38 
China  blue  style,  90 
Cbinoline  blue,  139 
Chlor-machine,  106 
Chlorine,  Dobbie  and  Hutcheson's 

process  for  obtaining,  20 
Chocolate  for  machine  work,  98 
(for  steam  styles),  114,121 
dye  for  wool,  57 
Chrome,  arseniate  of,  standard,  104 
black,  45 

chloride  of,  standard,  103 
nitro-acetate  of,   for  extract 

styles,  129 
sulphate  of,  standard,  103 
yellow  for  cotton,  54 
Chryso-rhanmin,  157 
('inchonine,  139 
Cinnamon  for  steam  styles,  118 
Claret  dye  for  cotton,  51 

dye  for  wool,  57 
Cleansing  process,  74 
Coal-tar,  160 
colours,  160 

colours,  how  to   dye  cotton 
with,  52 
Cochineal,  139 

varieties  of,  140 
adulteration  of,  140 


INDEX, 


Cochineal,  to  test,  140 

ammoniacal,  60 

ammoniacaJ,     standard  for 
steam  styles,  121 
Colours,  adjective,  36 

substantive,  36 
Colour  doctors,  67 
Colouring  matters  and  mordants, 

nature  of  union  between,  38 
Coralline,  1S9 

Cotton  and  calico  cleansing,  69 
Cotton,  bleaching  of,  8 

forms  in  which  dyed,  35 

impurities  in,  9 

and  calico,  singeing  of,  68 

black  dyes  for,  43,  44,  45,  46, 
47 

bkie  dyes  for,  49 

brown  dyes  lor,  47,  48 

canary  dye  for,  51 

chamois  dye  for,  50 

claret  dye  for,  51 

and  coal-tar  colours,  52 

drab  dye  for,  51 

green  dye  for,  49 

dark  mauve  dye  for,  50 

orange  dye  for,  54 

pink  dyes  lor,  53 

red  dye  for,  53 

slate  dye  lor,  50 

yellow  dye  for,  54 

violet  dye  for,  50 
Covers,  loi 
Crum's  theory,  38 
Cudbear,  140 

Cuir,  for  steam  styles,  118 
Cylinder  printing,  64,  65,  66,  67, 
68 

apparatus,  64,  65,  66 
Cyaniue,  139 

D. 

Dale  &  ScHonnEiM^rER's  method 
of  prepai'ing  alizarin,  183 

I)ale  &  Caro's  patent  for  prepar- 
ing aniline  red,  174 

Halilia,  170 

Degnmmage,  74 

JJe  Vinant's  black,  46 

J  )i-chlor  process,  Perkins,  188 


j  Dinitronaphthol,  190 

1  Dip,  the,  20 

I  Diphenylamine  blue,  io5 

j  Discharge  style,  90 

I         white  for  indigoes,  109 

I  Discharges,  loi 

I         various,  91 

:  Dobbie    &   Hutcheson's  proccsa 
j      for  obtaining  chlorine,  208 
Drab  (calico-printing),  105 
dye  for  cotton,  51,  52 
bright  for  cotton,  52 
for  machine  work,  98 
dye  for  wool,  57 
'         for  steam  styles,  120 
I  Dunging  process,  72,  73 
'  Dung  substitutes,  72,  73 
Dyeing,  33 

apparatus,  39,  40 
I         history  of,  33,  34 
\         upon  mordant  style,  87 
I         printed  goods,  74 
:  Dye-becks,  74 
Dye  stuffs,  133 
Dyers'  saffron,  158 
woad,  159 

E 

Emeraldine,  171 
Eosin,  yellowish,  191 
Extract,  or  topical  fast  style,  93- 
Extracts,  madder,  152 

F. 

Fakina  Gum  Water,  99 
Fawn  (calico-printing),  99,  105 

for  steam  styles,  118 
Feather  bleaching,  28 
i^'errocyanide  of  tar    for  steam 

styles,  115 
Finishing,  76 
Five-fourths  mordant,  154 
Flax,  impurities  in,  171 
Fleur  de  garance,  151 
Flowers  of  madder,  151 
Fluorescine,  191 
French  berries,  157 


INDEX. 


199 


French  berries,  pink  style,  88 

yellow,  190 
Fucbsine,  172 
Fustic,  141 

old,  141 

young,  141 
Fustine,  141 

G. 

Uat.l  Liquok,  102 
Garance,  fleur  de,  151 
Garanceux,  152 
Garancine,  152 

style,  89,  105 
Gerber-Keller's  patent,  for  prepara- 
tion of  aniline  red,  172 
Gessert"s   metliod    for  obtaining 

antbracen,  178 
Girard's  metbod  for  preparing  arli- 

ficial  aHzarin,  182 
Glycerin   standard     for  extract 

styles,  130 
Green  aldebyde,  175 
dye  for  cotton,  49 
discbarge  on  bronze,  124 
fast  (calico  printing),  104 
for  indigo  styles,  no 
iodine,  175 

(dark)  for  steam  styles,  115 
(medium)  for  steam  styles,  121 
(metbyl)  ^^for   extract  styles, 
131^ 

(pale)  for  steam  styles,  116 

Perkin's,  175 

for  pigment  colours,  125 

dyes  tor  wool,  58 
Grenate  brown,  189 
Grey  for  pigment  colours,  126 
Gum,  bow  to  test,  84 

lead,  105 

H. 

Habana  Bi:own,  170 

Hsematoxylin,  149 

Hellot's  tlieory,  38 

History  of  bleacbing,  i,  2,  3,  4, 

5,  6,  7 
of  calico-printing,  61 
of  dyeing,  33,  34 


Hodge's  process  of  bleacbing,  21, 

22,  23,  24 
Hoffman  violets,  176 
Hypochlorite  of  magnesia,  21 

of  soda  (chloride  of  soda\  20 

I. 

Indian  Cochineal,  148 

yellow,  157 
Indican,  142 
Indiglucin,  143 
Indigo,  141,  142 

how  prepared  for  dyeing,  143 

bow  to  test,  143 

discharge  style,  90,  107 

blue  style,  89 

sulphate  of,  146 

soluble,  146 

cold  vat,  144 

vat,  German,  145 

potash  vat,  144 

vat,    Scbiltzenbcrger   &  De 
Lalande,  144 
Iodine  green,  175 
Irisb  plan  of  bleacbing  linen,  14, 
15,  16 

of  bleaching  yarns,  24,  25,  26 
Iron  liquor,  155 
Isopurpurate  of  potassium,  189 
Italian  black,  45 

J. 

Jet  Black  fou  Wool,  56 
K. 

Kay's  Method  of  obtaining  anib'ne 

violet,  177 
Kermes,  147 
Kieserite,  21 

L. 

Lac,  148 

lake,  148 
stick,  148 
tests  for,  148,  149 


200 


INDEX. 


La  Kao,  149 
Lake,  37 

Laurent  &  Castlielaz's  method  of 

preparing  aniline  red,  174 
Lautli    &  Depouilly's  patent  for 

aniline  red,  172 
Lavender  for  steam  styles,  120 
Lead  gum,  105 
Lepidine,  139 
blue,  139 
Le  Pileur  d'Appligny's  theory,  38 
Lilac  for  spirit  styles,  122 
Lima  wood,  139 
Lime-juice  mixture,  102 
Jiinen,  bleaching  of,  13,  14,  15 

bleaching,  Irish  plan,  14, 15,  16 
bleaching,  Scotch  plan,  14,  i^, 
16 

cleansing  process,  69 
Liquor,  black,  155 

iron,  155 

red,  153 
Logwood,  149 

Luck's  test  for  anthracen,  179 
Luteolin,  159 
Lyons'  blue,  168 

M. 

Maclukix,  141 
Madder,  150 

adulteration  of,  155 

extracts,  152 

flowers  of,  151 

to  1.est,  155 

varieties  of,  150,  151 

and  alizarin  dyed  style,  87 

and    alizarin  dyed  style, 
blocked,  88 

brown,  to  resist  heavy  covers 
of  purple,  98 

purple,  dark  (calico  printinc), 

96  . 

jDurpie  light  (calico  printing), 

97  . 

purple  medium  (calico  print- 
ing), 97 
Magdala  red,  191 
Magenta,  172 

adulterations  of,  155 
Magnesia,  hypochlorite  of,  2 1 


Manchester  yellow,  190 
Manganese  bronze  style,  93 
Materials  for  paper,  bleaching, 2 8, 293 
Mauve,  169 

or  violet  discharge  on  bronze^^ 
124 

dye  for  cotton,  50 
for  extract  styles,  130 

Mauveine,  169 

Medium  brown,  48 

Medlock's  patent  for  aniline  red.. 
172 

Mills,  wash,  17 
Mordants,  36,  77,  10  r 
list  of,  77 

remarks  on,  78,  79,  80,  8i 
Mordant,  alkaline  red,  10  [ 

alkaline  red,  light,  10 1 

alkaline  pink,  lor 

alkaline  pink,  light,  10 1 

pans,  85 
Morine,  141 
Moritannic  acid,  141 
Murexid,  156 


N. 

Navy  Blue  Dye,  49 

Naphthalene,  190 

Naphthyl  violet,  177 

Nicaragua  wood,  1 39 

Nicholson's  blue,  168 

Nitrate  of  alumina  for  steam  styles,- 

Nitro-acetate  of  chrome  for  extracl) 

styles,  129 
Nitro-benzol,  160 


0. 


Olive  vo\i  Indigo,  iio 
(light)  for  indigo,  i  to 
for  pigment  colours,  1 26 
dye  for  wool,  58 

Opal  blues,  168 

Orange  dye  for  cotton,  54 

for  indigo  discharge  style,  109 

Orceine,  136 

Orcine,  136 


INDEX. 


20I 


Orellin,  134 

Organic  matter  in  water,  how  to 

remove,  42 
Oxalate  and  chromate  standard, 

109 


P. 

Padding  Machine,  39,  40 

purple  (calico-printing),  99 
style,  89,  107 

Paris  blue,  171 

Pastel,  159 
vat,  144 

Peach  wood,  157 

Peacock  blue  for  silk,  55 

Pearl  for  steam  styles,  120 

Peonine,  189 

Perkin's  di-chlor  process,  188 

method  of  preparing  artificial 
alizarin,  187 

method  of  purifying  anthra- 
cen,  179 

green,  175^ 
Perrotine  machine,  63 
Persian  berries,  157 

varieties  of,  157 
Persio,  140 
Persoz's  theory,  38 
Phoenicienne,  189 
Picric  acid,  189 

red,  189 
Pigment  colour  style,  93 
Pink  (hght)  for  cotton,  53 

(bright  rose),  for  cotton,  53 

(safflower),  for  cotton,  53 

for  extract  styles,  132 

for  spirit  styles,  122 

(cochineal)      standard,  for 
steam  styles,  113 

cochineal  medium,  for  steam 
styles,  113 

cochineal,  pale  or  rose,  for 
steam  styles,  113,  120 

(magenta-aniline),   dark,  for 
steam  styles,  II 3 

medium,  114 

pale  or  rose,  1 14 


Pinkey's  patent  black,  45 
Plaquage  style,  89 
Potassium,  isopurpurate  of,  189 
Price's  method  of  obtaining  aniline 

violet,  177 
Printed  goods,  how  dyed,  74 

paper,  bleaching,  29 
Prussian  blue  dye,  49 
Prussiate  of  tin  pulp  for  steam 

styles,  115 
Purple  assistant  liquor,  95 

(dark),  for  extract  styles,  128 

(pale),  for  extract  styles,  1 32 

fixing  liquor,  95 

regina,  176 

Spiller's,  177 

for  spirit  styles,  122 
Purpurate  of  ammonia,  156 
Purree,  157 


Q. 

QUERCETIN,  141,  158 

Quercitrin,  158 
Quercitron  bark,  1 58 


R. 

Ramsay's  Method  of  Bleaching, 

Eed  discharge  on  bronze,  124 
dye  for  cotton,  53 
for  extract  styles,  128 
for  indigo,  1 10 
liquors,  153,  154 
dark,  for  machine  work,  99 
pale,  for  machine  work,  100 
resist,  dark,  for  machine  work, 

100 
picric,  189 

for  steam  styles,  112,  117,  120 
brown  for  steam  styles,  118 
Regina  purple,  1 76 
Renard's   method    of  preparing 

anilne  red,  174 
Reserves,  10 1 
Reserve  style,  88 

P 


202 


INDEX. 


Eesist  pastes,  89 

red  liquor,  100 

style,  88 
Ehein  (clirysophanic  acid),  158 
lElhubarb,  158 
Eose  for  extract  styles,  132 
Eoseine,  172 
Eosolic  acid,  189 
Eubbing-  machine,  18 

process,  18 
Eubian,  153 


s. 

St.  Martha's  Wood,  157 
Safflower,  158 

pink  for  cotton,  53 
Safranine,  171 
Saffron,  159 

adulteration  of,  159 
Safrosin,  191 

Sage,  pale  (calico-printing),  105 
Salmon  for  indigo,  1 1 1 

dye  for  wool,  59 
Sandal  wood,  158 
Santalin,  158 

Sapan  standard  for  steam  styles, 
117 
wood,  139 
Saxony  blue,  146 
Scald,  the,  20 
Scarlet  dyes  for  wool,  59 
Scotch  plan  of  bleaching  linen,  14, 

15,  16 
Sour,  the,  20 

Schuller's    method   of  purifying 

anthracen,  178 
Silk,  bleaching,  27 
blue  dyes  for,  55 
to  dye,  54,  55 
cleansing,  68 
forms  in  which  dyed,  35 
Silver  drab  (medium)  for  steam 
styles,  120 
(pale)  for  steam  styles,  120 
standard    for   steam  styles, 
119 


Singeing  machine  (Tulpin's),  68 

Slate  dye  for  cotton,  50 

(medium)  for  steam  styles,  119 
(pale)  for  steam  styles,  119 
for  pigment  colours,  126 
standard  for  steam  styles,  119 

Smith's  method  of  preparing  ani- 
line red,  174 
of  preparing  aniline  violet,i77 

Soda  hypochlorite  (chloride  of  soda) 
20 

Solferino,  172 
Soluble  blues,  168 
Spiller's  purple,  177 
Spirit  colour  style,  92 
Standard  red  hquor,  100 
Steam-colour  style,  prepared,  91, 
III 
chest,  92 

style,  unprepared,  92 
Steeping  process,  19,  20 
Stone  for  steam  styles,  120 
Straw,  bleaching,  30 
Styles  of  calico-printing,  86 
Substantive  colours,  36 
Sulphindigotic  acid,  146 
Sulphindylic  acid,  146 
Sulpho-muriate  of  tin,  112 
Sulphuring  woollen  goods,  26,  27 


T. 


Tan  for  Pigment  Colours,  126 
Tessie  du   Mathey's  method  of 

bleaching,  32 
Theory  of  bleaching,  3 1 
Thickeners,  84 
list  of,  82 

remarks  on,  82,  83,  84 
Thorn's  apparatus,  32 
Thread  bleaching,  2 1 
Tin,  sulpho-muriate  of,  112 
Tulpin's  singeing  machine,  68 
Turkey  red  with  discharges  style, 
90 

Turmeric  dye  for  cotton,  54 
Tyraline,  172 


INDEX. 


203 


V. 

Vat,  indigo,  cold,  144 

indigo,  potash,  144 

indigo,  Schiitzenberger  &  De 
Lalande's,  144 

pastel,  144 

woad,  144 
Violet  benzyl,  177 

dye  for  cotton,  50 

imperial,  176 

naphthyl,  177 
Violets,  Hoffman's,  176 


w. 

White  Discharge  on  Bronze, 
123 

Wash  mills,  17 

Water,  choice  of  for  dyeing,  41 

organic  matter  in,  how  to  re- 
move, 42 
Wax,  bleaching,  30,  31 
Weld,  159 
Woad,  159 

vat,  144 
Wool  to  dye,  54,  55 


Wool,  forms  in  which  dyed,  35 

black  dyes  for,  55,  56 

brown  dyes  for,  S7 

chocolate  dye  ibr,  57 

crabbing,  68 

claret  dye  for,  57 

crimson  dye  for,  59 

drab  dye  for,  57 

green  dyes  for,  58 

salmon  dye  for,  59 

scarlet  dyes  for.  59 

olive  dye  for,  58 

yellow  dyes  for,  60 
Woollen  goods,  bleaching,  26,  27 

Y. 

Yarns,  Bleaching  op,  12 

Irish  plan  of  bleaching,  24, 
25,  26 

Yellow  aniline,  177 
berries,  157 

discharge  on  bronze,  124 

dye  for  cotton,  54 
Yellowish  eosin,  191 
Yellow,  French,  190 

for  indigo  discharge  style,  109 

for  steam  styles,   1 2 1 

Manchester,  190 

dyes  for  wool,  60 


THE  END. 


'  liliir 

q  3  3125  01360  1915 


PRACTICAL  BOOKS  FOR  EVERY  DAY  USE. 


WHAT  EVERY  MOTHER  OOeHT  TO  KNOW 

ABOUT  the  CARE  and  MANAGEMENT  OF  CHILDREN. 
By  EDWARD  ELLIS,  M.D. 
ISmo,   CJ-iOrn.      FRICE  75  CEINTTS. 

From  the  London  Pall  Mali  i^c^aftii.  \       f  ) 

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By   CHRISTOPHER    WILLIAM  HUFELAND. 

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production  of  an  empiric." 

MENTAL  CULTDRE  AND  THE  TRAINING  OF  CHILDREN. 

By  PYE   HENRY    CHAVASSE,  M.D. 

ISmo,  CLOTH.   FRICE  Sl.OO.    I>A1?ER,  50  cts. 

The  mental  culture  and  training  of  a  child  is  of  immense  import- 
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altogether  thrown  away.  It  is  well,  at  all  events,  to  bring  the  subject 
prominently  before  the  attention  of  mothers. 

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THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  CHILDREN, 

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SCHOOL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HYGIENE. 

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EYESIGHtTgood  and  Bad. 

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